Family Economics Review [1979, Number 1]

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HIGHLIGHTS/WINTER 1979
COST OF RAISING FARM CHILDREN
CLOTHING BUDGETS FOR FARM CHILDREN
CHILDREN:
IN ONE-PARENT FAMILIES
IN THE UNITED STATES
DIETS
Deposjtrm
PROPERTY OF T~E
LIBRARY
DE:C 1919?8
U n! .tcrs!ty cf North C~rcli!13
[.! Greensbo!"o
Consumer and Food Economics Institute
Science and Education Administration
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW is a quarterly
report on research of the Consumer and Food
Economics Institute and on information from
other sources relating to economic aspects of
family living. It is prepared primarily for home
economics agents and home economies
specialists of the Cooperative Extension
Service.
Authors are on the staff of the Consumer and Food
Economics Institute unless otherwise noted.
Editor: Katherine S. Tippett
Consumer and Food Economics Institute
Science and Education Administration
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Federal Building
Hyattsville, Md. 20782
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U .8. Government Printing omee, Washington, D.C. 20402
THE COST OF RAISING FARM CHILDREN,
by Carolyn S. Edwards and Brucy Gray
Estimates of the cost of raising farm children
from birth to age 18 at four cost levels have
been developed based on data from the 1973
Farm Family Living Expenditure Survey
(FFLES) (7, 9). Total and annual costs in 1977
/ average prices are provided by age and sex for
eight budget components: Food at home, food
away from home, housing, transportation,
clothing, medical care, education, and all other
items. The four levels correspond to levels of
expenditure consistent with the four USDA
.., food plans.
The estimates do not include costs for the
birth of the child or for college. While emphasis
is placed on out-of-pocket expenditures, the
estimates do take into account the value of
services from owned motor vehicles, the value
of home~produced food, and the value of
services from housing owned or received as
pay. They do not, however, represent the total
consumption costs involved in raising a child.
For example, the estimates do not reflect what
families may be consuming due to stocks of
durables, past expenditures, income-in-kind,
gifts, or the value of community services.
Similarly, no account is made for the value of
personal services performed by family members
or for the value of earnings foregone in time
spent raising children.
1977 ESTIMATES
Estimates of the total cost of raising a farm
child from birth to age 18, in constant 1977
dollars are around $27,000 at the thrifty level,
$38,700 at the low level, $58,700 at the
moderate level, and $88,500 at the liberal level
(table 1). Total costs are higher for boys than
for girls. This is primarily due to estimated
higher transportation costs for teenage boys.
Annual costs generally rise with the age of
the child. No substantial difference in annual
costs by sex shows up until later years, when
1 This article is condensed from a paper given at the
Food and Agricultural Outlook Conference in Novem­ber
1978 at Washington, D.C. The original paper gives
more information on methodology and updating pro­cedures
than is given here. The complete paper may be
ordered from the Consumer and Food Economics
Institute (see p. 2 for address).
WINTER 1979
estimates for boys are higher than for girls,
again primarily due to higher transportation
costs. Annual costs for boys range from around
$1,200 to $2,000 at the thrifty level, $1,700 to
$2,800 at the low level, $2,400 to $4,300 at
the moderate level, and $3,600 to $6,200 at
the liberal level. Annual costs for girls range
from around $1,200 to $1,700 at the thrifty
level, $1,700 to $2,500 at the· low level, $2,500
to $3,900 at the moderate level, and $3,700 to
$5,800 at the liberal level.
The child's estimated share of family hous­ing
is the most costly item in the child-rearing
cost estimates, accounting for between 35 and
40 percent, depending on cost level (table 2).
Food at home and transportation are generally
second and third highest, followed by educa­tion,
medical care, and the all-other category.
Estimated costs of clothing and food away
from home represent the smallest portions of
the cost of raising a child.
The share of the cost of raising a child
represented by the different components of the
budget differs by cost level (table 2). At the
lower levels, the proportions reflect the relative
importance of necessary items. For example, at
the thrifty level, food and housing account for
more than two-thirds of the total costs, while
education--in which such optional items as
special lessons, private schools, and extra books
and supplies predominate--was estimated as
zero. At the higher cost levels, estimated costs
for housing and food at home, and, to a lesser
degree, . for medical care and transportation,
account for a smaller share of the total than at
the lower levels. At the liberal level, education
and the all-other component take on consider­ably
more importance.
USE AND INTERPRETATION
OF THE ESTIMATES
Earlier USDA estimates of the cost of raismg
a child, released in 197 0-71 ( 4, 8) and based on
the 1960-61 Survey of Consumer Expenditures
(CES), are frequently requested not only as
stan<jard budget guidance materials for families
but also as input into research, judicial deci­sions
on child support, and guides for public
welfare allowances. In order for these estimates
3
""" Table 1. Cost of raising farm children from birth to age 18, at 4 cost levels, by age and sex: 1977 annual costs 1
Age of child Total Food at home Food away Housing Transportation Clothing Medical care Education All other
(years) from home
Boys ..:irls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
Dollars
Thrifty level:
Less than 1 1,212 1,207 235 235 0 0 595 595 117 117 56 56 128 98 0 0 81 106
1 1,276 1,271 299 299 0 0 595 595 117 ll7 56 56 128 98 0 0 81 106
2 1,259 1,244 299 299 0 0 595 595 117 117 56 40 111 87 0 0 81 106
3 1,326 1,311 346 346 20 20 595 595 117 117 56 40 lll 87 0 0 81 106
4 1,326 1,311 346 346 20 20 595 595 ll7 ll7 56 40 111 87 0 0 81 106
5 1,326 1,311 346 346 20 20 595 595 117 ll7 56 40 111 87 0 0 81 106
6 1,408 1,428 413 413 32 32 595 595 117 117 62 67 108 98 0 0 81 106
7 1,408 1,428 413 413 32 32 595 595 117 ll7 62 67 108 98 0 0 81 106
8 1,408 1,428 413 413 32 32 595 595 117 117 62 67 108 98 0 0 81 106
9 1,476 1,476 480 474 33 19 595 595 117 117 62 67 108 98 0 0 81 106
10 1,514 1,501 480 474 33 19 595 595 117 117 100 92 108 98 0 0 81 106
11 1,514 1,501 480 474 33 19 595 595 117 117 100 92 108 98 0 0 81 106
12 1,588 1,554 570 517 17 29 595 595 117 117 100 92 108 98 0 0 81 106
13 1,588 1,554 570 517 17 29 595 595 117 ll7 100 92 108 98 0 0 81 106
14 1,904 1,729 570 517 17 29 595 595 412 271 121 113 108 98 0 0 81 106
15 2,020 1,760
6R
527 51 so 595 595 412 271 121 113 108 98 0 0 81 106
16 2,012 1,740 65 527 51 so 595 595 412 271 113 93 108 98 0 0 81 106
17 2,012 1,740 652 527 51 50 595 595 412 271 113 93 108 98 0 0 81 106
Total 27' 577 26,494 8,216 7,664 459 450 10 , 710 10,710 3,286 2, 722 1,452 1,320 1,996 1,720 0 0 1,458 1 , 908
Low level:
Less than 1 1,705 1,705 294 294 0 0 813 813 161 161 76 76 140 119 0 0 221 242
1 1,785 1,785 374 374 0 0 813 813 161 161 76 76 140 119 0 0 221 242
2 1,783 1, 772 374 374 0 0 813 813 161 161 76 63 138 119 0 0 221 242
3 1,882 1,871 422 422 51 51 813 813 161 161 76 63 138 119 0 0 221 242
4 1,882 1,871 422 422 51 51 813 813 161 161 76 63 138 119 0 0 221 242
5 1,882 1,871 422 422 51 51 813 813 161 161 76 63 138 119 0 0 221 242
6 2,067 2,072 511 Sll 52 52 813 813 161 161 99 ~ 93 133 123 77 77 221 242
7 2,067 2,072 511 511 52 52 813 813 161 161 99 93 133 123 77 77 221 242
8 2,067 2,072 511 511 52 52 813 813 161 161 99 93 133 123 77 77 221 242
9 2,161 2,145 588 580 69 56 813 813 161 161 99 93 133 123 77 77 221 242
10 2,191 2,196 588 580 69 56 813 813 161 161 129 144 133 123 77 77 221 242
"'l 11 2,191 2,196 588 580 69 56 813 813 161 161 129 144 133 123 77 77 221 242
> 12 2,291 2,260 696 635 61 65 813 813 161 161 129 144 133 123 77 77 221 242
~ .... 13 2,291 2,260 696 635 61 65 813 813 161 161 129 J.44 133 123 77 77 221 242 t"' 14 2,689 2,462 696 635 61 65 813 813 529 347 159 160 133 123 77 77 221 242
>< 15 2,829 2,492 802 652 95 78 813 813 529 347 159 160 133 123 77 77 221 242
l%.1 16 2,822 2,489 802 652 95 78 813 813 529 347 152 157 133 123 77 77 221 242
(i 17 2,822 2,489 802 652 95 78 813 813 529 347 152 157 133 123 77 77 221 242
0z Total 39 , 407 38,080 10,099 9,442 984 906 14 ,634 14,634 4,370 3,642 1,990 1,986 2, 428 2, 190 924 924 3 , 978 4, 356
0
-~ See footnote at end of table. (i r:n
~
l%.1
<-: l%.1
~
Table 1. Cost of raising farm children from birth to ~ge 18, at 4 cost levels, by age and sex: 1977 annual costs 1 --continued
~ Age of child Total Food at home
Food away
z from home Housing Transportation Clothing Medical care Education All other
>-3 (years)
t:rJ Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
~
1-' Dollars
~ ....:. Moderate level:
~ Less than 1 2,445 2,481 370 370 0 0 1,149 1,149 224 224 111 111 155 159 0 0 436 468
1 2,547 2,583 472 472 0 0 1,149 1,149 224 224 111 111 155 159 0 0 436 468
2 2,554 2,566 472 472 0 0 1,149 1,149 224 224 102 92 171 161 0 0 436 468
3 2, 710 2, 722 533 533 95 95 1,149 1,149 224 224 102 92 171 161 0 0 436 468
4 2, 710 2, 722 533 533 95 95 1,149 1,149 224 224 102 92 171 161 0 0 436 468
5 2,710 2, 722 533 533 95 95 1,149 1,149 224 224 102 92 171 161 0 0 436 468
6 3,208 3,225 650 650 84 84 1,149 1,149 224 224 146 145 174 160 345 345 436 468
7 3,208 3,225 650 650 84 84 1,149 1,149 224 224 146 145 174 160 345 345 436 468
8 3,208 3,225 650 650 84 84 1,149 1,149 224 224 146 145 174 160 345 345 436 468
9 3,350 3,349 753 740 123 118 1,149 1,149 224 224 146 145 174 160 345 345 436 468
10 3,389 3,421 753 740 123 118 1,149 1,149 224 224 185 217 174 160 345 345 436 468
11 3,389 3,421 753 740 123 118 1,149 1,149 224 224 185 217 174 160 345 345 436 468
12 3,558 3,504 905 822 140 119 1,149 1,149 224 224 185 217 174 160 345 345 436 468
13 3,558 3,504 905 822 140 119 1,149 1,149 224 224 185 217 174 160 345 .345 436 468
14 4,114 3,801 905 822 140 119 1,149 1,149 74.1 503 224 - 235 174 160 345 345 436 468
15 4,254 3,811 1,000 820 185 131 1,149 1,149 741 503 224 235 174 160 345 345 436 468
16 4,251 3,857 1,000 820 185 131 1,149 1,149 741 503 221 281 174 160 345 345 436 468
17 4,251 3,857 1,000 820 185 131 1,149 1,149 741 503 221 281 174 160 345 345 436 468
Total 59,414 57,996 12,837 12,009 1,881 1,641 20,682 20,682 6,100 5,148 2,844 3,070 3,082 2,882 4,140 4,140 7,848 8,424
Liberal level:
Less than 1 3,641 3, 722 413 413 0 0 1,733 1,733 330 330 155 155 180 212 0 0 830 879
1 3, 794 3, 875 566 566 0 0 1,733 1,733 330 330 155 155 180 212 0 0 830 879
2 3, 865 3,923 566 566 0 0 1,733 1,733 330 330 158 158 248 257 0 0 830 879
3 4,090 4,148 613 613 178 178 1,733 1,733 330 330 158 158 248 257 0 0 830 879
4 4,090 4,148 613 613 178 178 1,733 1,733 330 330 158 158 248 257 0 0 830 879
5 4,090 4,148 613 613 178 178 1,733 1,733 330 330 158 158 248 257 0 0 830 879
6 4,946 4,989 799 799 139 139 1,733 1,733 330 330 222 227 234 223 659 659 830 879
7 4,946 4,989 799 799 139 139 1,733 1,733 330 330 222 227 234 223 659 659 830 879
8 4,946 4,989 799 799 139 139 1,733 1,733 330 330 222 227 234 223 659 659 830 879
9 5,087 5,110 891 825 188 234 1,733 1,733 330 330 222 227 234 223 659 659 830 879
10 5,109 5,219 891 825 188 234 1,733 1,733 330 330 244 336 234 223 659 659 830 879
11 5,109 5,219 891 825 188 234 1,733 1,733 330 330 244 336 234 223 659 659 830 879
12 5,317 5,331 1,046 976 241 195 1,733 1,733 330 330 244 336 234 223 659 659 830 879
13 5,317 5,331 1,046 976 241 195 1,733 1,733 330 330 244 336 234 223 659 659 830 879
14 6,032 5,646 1,046 976 241 195 1,733 1,733 994 671 295 310 234 223 659 659 830 879
15 6,201 5,627 1,187 961 269 191 1,733 1,733 994 671 295 310 234 223 659 659 830 879
16 6,229 5,753 1,187 961 269 191 1, 733 1,733 994 671 323 436 234 223 659 659 830 879
17 6,229 5,753 1,187 961 269 191 1,733 1,733 994 671 323 436 234 223 659 659 830 879
Total 89,038 87,920 15,153 14,067 3,045 2,811 31,194 31,194 8,596 7,304 4,042 4,686 4,160 4,128 7,908 7,908 14,940 15,822
!Budgets were derived from expenditure data from the 1973 Farm Family Price Index, published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, were used: Food
Living Expenditure Survey, conducted by the Statistical Reporting Service at homei food away from home; housing; transportation; apparel commodities;
of the USDA. Estimates were based on data from families with members of men's and boys' garments; women's and girls' garments; footwear; medical
the corresponding age-sex categories. care; reading and recreation; an average of the personal care and reading
Thrifty, low, moderate, and liberal budget levels were computed at and recreation indexes.
levels of living which corresponded to family food expenditures at the Data rounded to the nearest $1.00.
USDA food plan levels. Clothing totals were derived by individually updating clothing component
Annual costs of the budgets were updated to 1977 by adjusting for price estimates presented in Polyzou and Edwards (~) with the appropriate indexes,
changes since the survey date. The following indexes of the Consumer rounding, and then adding.
c.n
to continue to serve the needs of diverse users,
these research-based materials needed revision
using the most current data available and
methodology which reflects, to the extent
possible, the uses to which the final estimates
will be put.
Surveys such as the FFLES and the CES are
currently the only sources of data that provide
necessary detail for the development of these
budgets and that are representative of the U.S.
population. These cross-section studies provide
considerable detail on family income and
expenditures and include information on the
sex, age, occupation, and marital status of each
family member. The nature of these data bases,
however, do present ·some problems which
should be borne in mind in the use and
interpretation of the estimates.
Table 2. Budget components of the cost of raising farm children
as a percent of total costs at 4 cost levels1
Budget component
and sex
Food at home:
Boys
Girls
Food away from home:
Boys
Girls
Housing:
Boys
Girls
Transportation:
Boys
Girls
Clothing:
Boys
Girls
Medical care:
Boys
Girls
Education:
Boys
Girls
All other:
Boys
Girls
Total:
Boys
Girls
Thrifty
30
29
2
2
39
40
12
10
5
5
7
7
0
0
5
7
100
100
Low Moderate Liberal
Percent
26 22 17
25 21 16
3 3 3
2 3 3
37 35 35
38 36 36
11 10 10
10 9 8
5 5 4
5 5 5
6 5 5
6 5 5
2 7 9
2 7 9
10 13 17
12 14 18
100 100 100
100 100 100
1Based on total cost estimates for boys and girls from table 1 .
6 FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
Unfortunately, data bases which are suffi­ciently
large and detailed to show changes in
household characteristics and expenditure pat­terns
are compiled infrequently. For example,
these estimates for farm children are based on
expenditure patterns and characteristics of
farm families in 1973. Estimates based on these
data may be adjusted to reflect price changes,
but to the extent that families allocate their
total resources differently, or allocate their
resources among components of child-rearing
costs differently, these estimates reflect only
those patterns as captured by the data in 1973,
and not changes that have taken place since
that time.
In addition, even with very large data bases,
sample size places a limit on the extent to
which family characteristics are represented
and may be taken into account. Once the
sample is partitioned by several characteristics
such as age and sex of the child, the limits for
reliable estimates are quickly reached. The
examination of special circumstances such as
single-parent families or foster children, there­fore,
may not be feasible.
The estimates are based on cross-section data
which present a picture of the characteristics of
the population at one point in time. The total
cost figures from birth to age 18 as presented
in table 1, therefore, do not reflect the change
in level and mix of goods and services available
or consumed by one household as a result of
changes in prices, income, or preferences expe­rienced
as the child grows up. Instead, the
totals represent the experiences and behavior
of different families with children at various
ages.
For convenience, the total figures are
expressed in constant 1977 dollars, which
assumes the child progresses through the 18
years under consideration at 1977 price levels.
For many uses, comparisons in constant dollars
are appropriate. The total can also be com­puted,
however, using prices current in each
year. For example, the total cost in current
dollars of raising a farm boy born in 1960 at
the moderate cost level until he reached 18 in
1977 would have been $40,196 (table 3) com­pared
with the figure in constant 1977 dollars
from table 1 of $59,414. This lower figure
takes into account changes in price levels
measured by the Consumer Price Index for the
different components of the budget as they
WINTER 1979
occurred from 1960 to 1977.
Depending on the use of the total cost
figures, other adjustments can be made. For
example, if concern were with projecting costs
to be incurred over the life of a child born in
1970, adjustments that reflect the experienced
price changes, as measured by the Consumer
Price Index, could be made to the estimates for
each subsequent year of the child's life up to
1977. Adjustments for expected price changes,
using some assumed price index, could be made
to the cost estimates for the corresponding age
years beyond 1977.
Consideration could also be made for
changes in family level of living over the life
cycle by combining figures at different cost
levels. For example, it might be assumed that a
child was raised for several years at one cost
level and for other years at another cost level.
METHODOLOGY
Sample
The estimates were developed from survey
data collected in 197 3 and early 197 4 by the
Economics, Statistics and Cooperatives Service
(ESCS), formerly the Statistical Reporting Ser­vice,
of the USDA (7, 9). The Farm Family
Living Expenditure Survey (FFLES) was
designed as a comprehensive study of the
expenditures of farm operators' families. The
self-weighting sample of 2,621 families pro­vided
data on family characteristics, expendi­tures,
and income.
The cost of raising a child estimates were
derived using data from 34 subsamples of this
total sample. Each subsample included only
those families with members of the age-sex
category for which estimates were being com­puted.
For example, data on the 242 families
with infants under 2 years were used to devel­op
clothing estimates for infants under 2. Thus,
the size, age-sex composition, and expenditure
patterns of the families with members in the
given category form the basis of the estimates.
Levels of the Budgets
The levels of the estimates reflect levels of
living of families whose food expenditures
correspond to the four USDA food plans. The
food plans are based on actual food consump­tion
habits, as well as standards of nutritional
adequacy, and indicate amounts and costs of
7
00
Table 3. Cost of raising a farm boy born in 1960 at the moderate cost level in prices current in the year specified 1
Year Age of Total Food at Food away
Housing Transpor- Clothing Medical Education All
child home from home tat ion care other
Years - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Dollars
1960 Less than 1 1,196 174 0 547 113 66 61 0 235
1961 1 1,257 224 0 551 115 66 62 0 239
1962 2 1,273 226 0 556 117 60 71 0 243
1963 3 1,359 259 41 562 118 60 72 0 247
1964 4 1,376 261 42 569 119 60 74 0 251
1965 5 1,398 268 43 575 121 61 76 0 254
1966 6 1,736 343 40 589 123 90 80 213 258
1967 7 1,780 342 42 606 127 93 86 219 265
1968 8 1,856 353 44 632 131 99 91 229 277
1969 9 2,036 428 69 672 136 106 98 238 289
1970 10 2,181 450 74 721 143 141 104 248 300
1971 11 2,273 461 78 754 150 145 111 261 313
1972 12 2,458 579 91 783 152 148 114 269 322
1973 13 2,627 673 99 818 157 153 119 275 333
1974 14 3,355 773 111 913 576 199 130 293 360
1975 15 3,786 925 161 1,011 630 207 145 316 391
"%j 1976 16 3,998 944 172 1,074 692 213 159 331 413
> 1977 17 4,251 1,000 185 1,149 741 221 174 345 436
-~ t"'
><: 1960-77 TOTAL 40,196 8,683 1,292 13,082 4,461 2,188 1,827 3,237 5,426
trj
l.l
0 z 1Derived from estimates and indexes presented in The Cost of Raising Farm Children, by Carolyn S. Edwards and 0
-~ Brucy C. Gray, a paper presented at the Food and Agricultural Outlook Conference in November 1978 at Washington, D.C. l.l Data rounded to nearest $1.00.
00
~
trj
-< trj
~
11 groups of food that together provide an
adequate diet for individuals of a specified age
and sex. Food plans for families may be
derived by combining this information for
individuals and applying economy of scale
factors to account for family size (5).
The work of Engel, examining the relation­ship
between well-being and the proportion of
total expenditures devoted to food, underlies
the use of the food plans as a benchmark for
the levels of the budgets (3). The application
assumes that families who are spending at
similar cost levels on food, allowing for differ­ences
in family size and composition, are living
at similar levels. These levels are, in turn,
reflected in other areas of consumption. An
advantage of using food as a benchmark for
indicating level of living is that food is the one
category of consumption for which scientific
standards of adequacy are available. The use of
the food plans also allows differences in family
size and composition to be taken into consider­ation,
which is not possible with income, the
more common indicator of level of living.
Estimation Procedure
The estimates presented here used an overall
approach similar to earlier USDA studies
(1, 2, 4); however, some changes in data collec­tion,
definition of variables, and estimation
procedures were both inevitable and desirable.
For example, it was not possible to compute
regional estimates with the 197 3 FFLES data.
In addition, changes were made to reflect new
uses of the estimates. Therefore, direct compar­isons
of the present with earlier estimates are
generally not possible.
Estimates of each budget component except
food at home were computed, for each age-sex
subsample, using multiple regression pro­cedures.
Budget Components
A major stage in the development of the
estimates was to obtain, from the FFLES data,
expenditures for each child in the family, by
age and sex. Only those expenditures for
children age 17 and under were to be included.
This required that expenditures for parents and
older children be separated as accurately as
possible.
Ideally, cost estimates would have been
made for each year of age. However, because of
WINTER 1979
sample size, estimates could only be made for
ranges in age. For each budget component,
therefore, children's age-sex categories had to
be defined in such a way as to reflect observed
differences in consumption that accompany
differences in physiological and social needs, or
which reflect the share of family expenditures
which can appropriately be attributed to a
family member of a given age and/or sex.
Because the pattern of these differences varies
among budget components, the age-sex cate­gories
were defined differently for each com­ponent.
For example, the age-sex categories for
food reflect changes in nutritional needs as a
child matures, whereas those for clothing
reflect changes in needs associated not only
with physical growth, but major changes asso­ciated
with social activity as well. Ideally, little
variation in consumption of the budget com­ponent
should be evident within age-sex
groups, while important variation should be
reflected between them.
For some budget components, such as cloth­ing,
the survey data were available only on
expenditures for family members identified by
very broad age-sex categories. For other com­ponents,
such as hqusing and transportation,
the survey data were available only on costs for
the family as a whole. Each individual child's
share of such observed costs had to be devel­oped.
The following sections describe the eight
budget components.
Food at home. Estimates for food at home
were developed from the USDA food plans for
197 3 rather than from the FFLES data.
Because the thrifty food plan had not been
developed in 1973, the thrifty level was com­puted
as 80 percent of the low cost level.
The food plans are amounts of food for
individuals of different ages and sex at four
cost levels (5). The food plans assume all meals
are eaten at home. However, in this study
estimates were developed for the cost of food
away from home. In order to avoid double­counting,
the food plan figures were reduced
by the proportion of estimated costs for food
away from home that, according to separate
analyses, substituted for costs of food at home.
In order to reflect the average size of FFLES
families with members of each given age-sex
category, the food plan estimates were adjusted
by economy of scale figures provided with the
food plans (5).
9
Food away from home. These estimates
were based on the child's share of family
expenditures for meals away from home other
than those at work. No estimates were made
for children under age 3. Total family expendi­tures
on food away were divided among family
members by assuming that family members
would consume the same proportion of the
family food away as of food at home.
Housing. Family housing costs included two
parts: Out-of-pocket expenditures for items
such as fuel, utilities, second homes, furniture,
equipment, and service contracts; and a hous­ing
services portion which consisted of an
estimated annual rental value for owners, rent
paid for renters, and an estimated reasonable
annual rental value for those who received their
housing without full expenditure. Total family
housing costs were divided equally among
family members.
Transportation. Transportation costs for the
family included current expenses such as
vehicle operation, service, and maintenance;
public transportation; and an annual value of
consumption of owned vehicles defined as the
purchase price divided by estimated average
service life of the vehicle. For purposes of
determining proportions of family costs to be
allocated to each child, three age-sex categories
were used: Children 13 and under, boys 14
through 17, and girls 14 through 17. The age of
14 appeared to be an appropriate dividing age
for farm children who may be licensed to drive
in some states at that age. Total family
transportation costs were then allocated to
individuals using proportions developed in such
a way as to reflect the actual size and age-sex
composition of the family as well as the age
and sex of the child.
Clothing. Data on clothing expenditures
from the FFLES were collected on 95 clothing
items. In order to make estimates of clothing
more manageable and yet retain detail, these
95 items were reduced to six clothing cate­gories
by combining similar items: Wraps,
outerwear, underwear and nightwear, hosiery,
footwear, and hats and other items.2
2 Children's clothing budgets are available not only
for the annual costs by age and sex as shown in table 1,
but also for the six clothing component categories ( 6)
(see article on page 12).
10
Earlier analyses on patterns of clothing
consumption led to the development of 11
age-sex categories for children which reflect
changes in physiological and social needs. Data
from the FFLES, however, were collected only
for five age-sex categories: Infants under 2,
females 2 through 15, males 2 through 15,
females 16 and over, and males 16 and over.
Observed expenditures in these broad age-sex
categories thus had to be divided among the 11
categories developed for these estimates. For
example, if a family had 2 girls ages 4 and 10,
the data on family clothing expenditures on
females 2 through 15 had to be divided
between the one girl in the 2 through 5
category and the other in the 10 through 13
category.
Medical care. Estimates of the cost of
medical care for children were based on family
medical and dental expenditures which
included net expenditures for health insurance,
hospital and physician services, eye care, pre­scriptions,
and medical supplies. Medical costs
were divided among family members on a
proportionate basis corresponding to data on
the average distribution of health care expendi­tures
by age-sex categories ( 1 0). Family dental
expenses were divided equally among family
members over 2 years of age.
Education. Expenditures on education
included tuition; books and supplies; fees; and
(for children not living at home) transporta­tion,
food, and housing expenses while attend­ing
school. Estimates were based on families
whose oldest child was at least 6 but no older
than 17. This limitation was imposed in order
to exclude educational expenses for parents or
older children attending college. Expenses were
divided equally among the children aged 6
through 17.
All other. The all-other category included
family expenditures on such items as gifts and
contributions; sewing materials and laundry
expenses; miscellaneous recreational and enter­tainment
expenses; and interest, service, and
other transaction costs. These expenditures
were divided equally among family members.
Male personal expenses were divided among the
males in the family and female personal
expenses among the females.
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
References
1. Britton, V. 1973. Clothing budgets for
children from the USDA: Annual costs
at three levels in four regions. Home
Economics Research Journal 1( 3):
173-184.
2. Madden, J. P., Pennock, J. ~.,and Jaeger,
C. M. 1968. Equivalent levels of living:
A new approach to scaling the poverty
line to different family characteristics
and place of residence. In: Rural Pov­erty
in the U.S., pp. 545-552. (A report
by the President's Advisory Commis­sion
on Rural Poverty.) Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
3. Monroe, D. 197 4. Pre-Engel studies and
the work of Engel: The origins of
consumption research. Home Eco­nomics
Research Journal 3(1): 43-64.
4. Pennock, J. L. 1970. Cost of raising a
child. Talk at the 47th Annual Agricul­tural
Outlook Conference, February
1970, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C.
5. Peterkin, B. 197 4. USDA family food
plans, 197 4. Talk at the 197 5 National
Agricultural Outlook Conference,
December 1974, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
6. Polyzou, A., Edwards, C. S., and Wein­stein,
M. B. 197 8. Clothing budgets for
farm children, 1977. Talk at the Food
and Agricultural Outlook Conference
November 1978, U.S. Department of'
Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
7. Thorp, F. C. 1975. Family expenditures:
The Farm Family Living Survey. Talk
at the National Agricultural Outlook
Conference, November 1975, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Washing­ton,
D.C.
8. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricul­tural
Research Service, Consumer and
Food Economics Institute. 1971. Cost
of Raising a Child, Derived From
1960-61 Survey of Consumer Expendi­tures,
Detail Tables. CFE(Adm.)-318.
9. Statistical Reporting Service.
197 5. Farm-Operator Family Expendi­tures
for 1973. SpSy6 (9-75).
10. U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare; Public Health Service,
Health Resources Administration.
197 4. Personal out-of-pocket health
expenses, United States, 1970. Vital
and Health Statistics, Series 10, No. 91.
CONSUMER AWARENESS AND USE OF UNIT PRICING
Results of a 1976 survey of food shoppers
on unit pricing is the subject of a new report
from the Economics, Statistics, and Coopera­tives
Service of the USDA. The survey, part of
a national study on consumers' behavior, atti­tudes,
and motives relating to several food­related
issues, explores how well the unit­pricing
system works among food shoppers by
determining (1) awareness and use of unit
pricing, (2) which products unit pricing is
mainly used for, (3) if problems which shop-
WINTER 1979
pers originally had with unit pricing still exist,
and ( 4) shoppers' opinions about the usefulness
of unit pricing. Tables include data showing
shoppers' awareness and use of unit pricing by
demographic characteristics, use of unit pricing
for selected products, and the usefulness of
different shopping aids to consumers.
The report, ESCS-30, is available from the
National Technical Information Service, 5285
Port Royal Road, Springfield, Va. 22161, for
$4.50.
11
CLOTHING BUDGETS FOR FARM CHILDREN, 1977
by Annette Polyzou, Carolyn S. Edwards, and Mills B. Weinstein
Annual clothing budget costs have been
developed for farm children under age 18 based
on data from the 197 3 Farm Family Living
Expenditure Survey (FFLES) (7, 8). The bud­gets
include costs for several age-sex categories
and for four levels-thrifty, low, moderate, and
liberal.
The levels of the budgets reflect the usual
clothing consumption practices of farm fami­lies.
They do not reflect scientifically deter­mined
standards of adequacy, since such stan­dards
have not been developed for clothing.
Because clothing practices are, for the most
part, socially or psychologically determined,
clothing budgets should provide for garments
suitable for the usual lifestyle of the individual
and his or her self-concept or intended image at
a level of expenditure consistent with the
family's income and interest in clothing in
relation to other forms of consumption. The
estimates reported here, which include annual
budget costs for six clothing categories, are
based on the actual clothing expenditures of
farm families in 197 3. These expenditures
reflect the size and composition of wardrobes
of farm children, the durability of fabrics and
construction, and clothing replacement
practices.
Uses and Limitations
Standard budgets for clothing are used to
help families manage their expenditures and
make long-range plans. To manage month-to­month
expenditures, the family must decide on
a budgeted amount that fits its needs. Compar­ing
the family's usual expenditures and ward­robes
with average practices of other families
helps the family select an appropriate cost
level. Standard budgets also indicate how cloth­ing
expenses change as children grow older or
the size and composition of the family changes.
In addition, State and Federal agencies often
use standard budgets to assess the income
needs of families.
Ideally, clothing budgets should include
both quantity and cost information to enable
users to evaluate the budgets in comparison
with their own needs and to plan purchases
that fit the pattern of the selected budget. A
complete, detailed specification of a clothing
12
budget would include annual costs, the amount
budgeted for each type of garment, and the
number of garments to be maintained in
inventory. The information needed to con­struct
this kind of budget is most readily
obtained from studies of actual expenditure
patterns of large samples of households repre­sentative
of a given population.
The budgets presented in this paper, how­ever,
cover only total costs by clothing cate­gory.
Although data from the FFLES on
quantities of 95 individual garments purchased
are available, estimates for numbers of individ­ual
garments could not be developed.
It also would have been desirable to develop,
as in earlier studies (1, 3, 5), separate estimates
for individuals living in different climatic
regions. The FFLES sample design, however,
did not permit this.
The budget costs cover purchased clothing
only. The actual inventories, especially for
children, probably included additional gar­ments
handed down from an older child,
received as gifts, or obtained from some other
source without cost. A 1965-66 survey of one
urban area found that only about 70 percent of
the total amounts of clothing acquired by low
to moderate income families was purchased
new. This ranged from as little as 33 percent
for children under 2 to 81 percent for male
heads of families (2).
The Estimates
Budget costs, updated to 1977 price levels,
ranged from about $40 to $120 at the thrifty
level, $60 to $160 at the low level, $90 to
$280 at the moderate level, and $150 to $440
at the liberal level, depending on the age and
sex of the child (see table). Cost differences
probably reflect differences in the price of
garments purchased, as well as the number of
garments in the wardrobe and frequency of
replacement. At the moderate and liberal
levels, budget costs for teenage girls were
generally higher than those for boys. Generally,
clothing budget costs increased with the age of
the child. Older children may have purchased
garments with greater fashion interest and
perhaps replaced these more frequently as
fashions changed. Also, older children are
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
~ Farm children's clothing budgets at 4 cost levels by age and sex: 1977 annual costs 1
...... z
>-7 tr.l Underwear Hats and ~ Cost level and Total Wraps Outerwear and Hosiery Footwear
all other 1-' age of child nightwear co
~ (years) co Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
Dollars
Thrifty level:
Infants 56 56 5 5 11 11 29 29 2 2 8 8 1 1
2-5 56 40 7 6 21 12 9 7 2 3 15 11 2 1
6-9 62 67 7 11 26 23 7 6 3 4 18 19 1 4
10-13 100 92 9 15 45 34 6 9 4 6 31 24 5 4
14-15 121 113 12 17 60 45 6 10 4 10 33 23 6 8
16-17 113 93 13 7 49 34 8 9 5 13 32 21 6 9
Low level:
Infants 76 76 6 6 19 19 36 36 3 3 11 11 1 1
2-5 76 63 9 7 31 23 10 9 3 4 21 18 2 2
6-9 99 93 10 13 46 39 9 7 4 5 26 24 4 5
10-13 129 144 13 18 58 65 8 14 5 9 38 31 7 7
14-15 159 160 15 19 80 75 8 15 5 12 42 29 9 10
16-17 152 157 15 15 78 71 9 14 6 16 37 28 7 13
Moderate level:
Infants 111 111 9 9 32 32 48 48 4 4 16 16 2 2
2-5 102 92 12 9 42 37 12 12 5 4 28 27 3 3
6-9 146 145 14 16 71 70 12 10 7 8 35 34 7 7
10-13 185 217 21 23 84 107 11 21 8 13 51 42 10 11
14-15 224 235 20 24 113 123 11 22 7 15 57 38 16 13
16-17 221 281 18 31 130 139 10 24 7 23 47 44 9 20
Liberal level:
Infants 155 155 12 12 49 49 64 64 6 6 22 22 2 2
2-5 158 158 18 13 68 69 16 18 7 6 44 47 5 5
6-9 222 227 20 22 112 120 17 16 11 11 51 4~ 11 9
10-13 244 336 29 31 111 177 15 33 11 19 65 59 13 17
14-15 295 310 25 28 150 172 15 29 10 17 73 48. 22 16
16-17 323 436 22 51 210 226 12 36 10 31 58 62 11 30
-
1Budgets were derived from expenditure data from the 1973 Farm Family Living Expenditure Survey, conducted by the
Economics, Statistics and Cooperatives Service, formerly the Statistical Reporting Service of the USDA. Estimates
were based on data from families with members of the corresponding age-sex categories.
Thrifty, low, moderate, and liberal budget levels were computed at levels of living which corresponded to family
food expenditure at the USDA food plan levels.
The budgets cover costs for garments and footwear, but exclude clothing materials for sewing and upkeep.
Annual costs of the clothing budgets were updated to 1977 by adjusting for price changes for clothing since the
survey date. The following 1977 annual average subindexes of the Consumer Price Index, published by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics, were used: Apparel commodities, men's and boys' garments, women's and girls' garments, and footwear.
1-' Data rounded to nearest $1.00. <:..:>
probably more likely to participate in work or
recreational activities requiring special clothing
and to need a larger and more diverse wardrobe
because of their more active social life.
Separate estimates were computed for six
categories of clothing: Wraps; outerwear;
underwear and nightwear; hosiery; footwear;
and hats and all-other items. The wraps cate­gory
includes light and heavy coats and jackets.
Outerwear includes suits, sweaters, pants,
shirts, dresses, skirts, and sportswear. Under­wear
and nightwear includes diapers, under­pants,
undershirts, bras, slips, sleepwear, and
robes. Hosiery includes socks and stockings;
footwear includes shoes and boots. The hats
and all-other category includes hats, gloves,
handbags, jewelry, and accessories. The budget
estimates do not include costs for fabric and
other items for home sewing or for clothing
upkeep.
For infants, underwear and nightwear
accounted for the greatest proportion of total
clothing costs, followed by outerwear. This
would be expected because of necessary expen­ditures
for diapers, particularly disposable
ones. In all other age-sex categories, however,
outerwear costs accounted for the greatest
proportion of the total annual costs, followed
by footwear. For example, at the moderate
cost level, underwear and nightwear for infants
cost $48, outerwear $32, and footwear $16 out
of the total annual clothing budget of $111. In
contrast, underwear and nightwear for girls
aged 6 through 9 cost $10, outerwear $70, and
footwear $34 out of the total annual clothing
budget of $145. Generally, the hats and all­other
category was the lowest of the total for
all age groups.
Levels of the Budgets
The cost levels of the estimates reflect levels
of living of families whose food expenditures
correspond to the USDA's four food plans. The
work of Engel, examining the relationship
between well-being and the proportion of total
expenditures devoted to food, underlies the use
of the food plans as a benchmark for the levels
of the budgets ( 4). The application assumes
that families who are spending at similar cost
levels on food, allowing for differences in
family size and composition, are living at
similar levels. These levels are, in turn, reflected
14
in other areas of consumption. The food plans
are based on actual food consumption habits,
as well as standards of nutritional adequacy,
and indicate amounts and costs of 11 groups of
food that together provide an adequate diet for
individuals of a specified age and sex. An
advantage of using food as a benchmark for
indicating level of living is that food is the one
category of consumption for which scientific
standards of adequacy are available. The use of
the food plans also allows differences in family
size and composition to be taken into consider­ation,
which is not possible with income, the
more common indicator of level of living.
Updating Procedures
Budget costs were estimated from the 197 3
data and then updated to 1977 by subindexes
of the Consumer Price Index. The apparel
commodities index was used to update infants'
clothing cost estimates; the women's and girls'
garments index was used for the girls' garments
categories; the men's and boys' garments index
was used for the boys' garment categories; and
the footwear index was used to update esti­mates
of the infants', girls', and boys' footwear
categories.
The estimates in the table account for price
changes since 197 3 when the data were col­lected,
but do not reflect the extent to which
families may have changed their allocation of
total resources among all budget items or their
allocation of clothing resources among all
clothing items. For example, comparisons of
clothing data from the 197 2-7 3 Survey of
Consumer Expenditures with previous Con­sumer
Expenditure Survey (CES) data indicates
that average family clothing expenditures, as a
percent of total consumption expenditures,
declined in both current and constant dollars.
The aggregate, personal consumption expendi­ture
(PCE) data, supplied by the Bureau of
Economic Analysis annually as part of the U.S.
National Income and Product Accounts, also
indicated a decline in clothing expenditures as
a percent of total personal consumption expen­ditures
for the same period. The PCE data
indicated that this trend continued through
1977 (7).
The 197 3 FFLES estimates are lower than
previous budget estimates updated to compara­ble
price levels (1, 5). While this is consistent
with trends as indicated by the CES and PCE
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
data, changes in data collection, variable defini­tion,
and estimation procedures make direct
comparisons of the present with earlier esti­mates
in valid.
Sample and Estimation Procedures
The estimates were developed from survey
data collected in 197 3 and early 197 4 by the
Economics, Statistics and Cooperatives Service
(ESCS), formerly the Statistical Reporting Ser­vice
of the USDA (7, 8). The FFLES was
designed as a comprehensive study of the
expenditures of farm operators' families. The
self-weighting sample of 2,621 families pro­vided
data on family characteristics, expendi­tures,
and income.
The clothing cost estimates were derived
using data from 11 subsamples of the total
sample. Each subsample included only those
families with members of the age-sex category
for which estimates were being computed. For
example, data on the 242 families with infants
under age 2 were used to develop clothing
estimates for infants under 2.
The methodology used to develop these
estimates was modified from earlier USDA
studies which utilized data from the 1960-61
Survey of Consumer Expenditures (1, 3, 5).
Estimates of each clothing category were com­puted
for each age-sex group, using multiple
regression procedures. 1
Age-Sex and Clothing Categories
A major stage in the development of the
estimates was to obtain, from the data, cloth­ing
item expenditures for each child in the
family, by age and sex. Ideally, estimates
would have been developed for each year of
age. However, because of sample size, estimates
could only be made for ranges in age.
Data on clothing expenditures were col­lected
for only five broad age-sex categories:
Infants under 2, females 2 through 15, males 2
through 15, females 16 and over, and males 16
and over. These broad age ranges, however,
1 For additional information on methodology see
"Clothing Budgets for Farm Children, 1977," by
Polyzou, A., and Edwards, C. S., a paper given at the
Food and Agricultural Outlook Conference in Novem­ber
1978 at Washington, D.C. This paper may be
ordered from the Consumer and Food Economics
" Institute (seep. 2 for address).
WINTER 1979
mask considerable variation in clothing con­sumption.
More narrow age-sex categories
therefore were needed to reflect changes in
consumption that accompany changes in physi­ological
and social needs of individuals. Analy­ses
of age-sex differences and trends of clothing
consumption from the 1960-61 Survey of
Consumer Expenditures (1 ), reviews of pre­vious
research, and examination of the age-sex
distributions in the FFLES data lead to the
development of 27 age-sex categories, 11 of
which are part of these estimates for children.
Age-sex categories for younger children reflect
changes in consumption caused by periods of
rapid growth as well as their usual activities at
different ages. The increased concern for con­forming
to peer groups is reflected in categories
for older children.
In order to compute clothing cost estimates
for these new age-sex categories, observed
expenditures on clothing for members of the
original five age-sex categories had to be
apportioned to individual family members. In a
few cases, where the family had only one child
of a given sex in the 2 through 15-year age
range, all the reported expenditures for that
category could, of course, be attributed to that
child. In other cases, the expenditures had to
be divided among two or more children. For
example, if a family had two girls ages 4 and
10, the data on family clothing expenditures
on females 2 through 15 had to be divided
between the one girl in the 2 through 5
category and the other in the 10 through 13
category. Expenditures for girls 16 through 17
and boys 16 through 17 had to be apportioned
from observed totals for females 16 and over
and males 16 and over, respectively. To divide
the expenditures reported for the broad age-sex
categories among family members, proportions
were developed for each family which reflected
its age-sex composition.
Data on the cost of 95 individual garments
were collected in the survey. However, only a
small number of families reported purchases of
some items. In order to obtain reliable esti­mates,
it was therefore necessary to group
garments into categories. To the extent possi­ble,
the categories which were developed were
defined in such a way that garments which can
serve a similar purpose in the wardrobe and are
thus at least partially substitutable for one
another were grouped together. All six clothing
15
categories are applicable to all of the age-sex
categories and are consistent with the way
garments are grouped in clothing subindexes of
the Consumer Price Index. Total dollar expen­ditures
for each clothing category thus formed
the\ basis of the cost estimates.
References
1. Britton, V. 197 3. Clothing budgets for
children from the USDA: Annual costs
at three levels in four regions. Home
Economics Research Journal 1(3):
173-184.
2. Britton, V. 1975. Stretching the clothing
dollar. Family Economics Review. Fall
issue, pp. 3-7.
3. Madden, J. P., Pennock, J. L., and Jaeger,
C. M. 1968. Equivalent levels of living: A
new approach to scaling the poverty line
to different family characteristics and
place of residence. In: Rural Poverty in
the U.S., pp. 545-552. (A report by the
President's Advisory Commission on
Rural Poverty.) Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office.
4. Monroe, D. 1974. Pre-Engel studies and the
work of Engel: The origins of consump­tion
research. Home Economics Research
Journal 3(1): 43-64.
5. Pennock, J. L. 1970. Cost of raising a child.
Talk at the 47th Annual Agricultural
Outlook Conference, February 1970,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash­ington,
D.C.
6. Polyzou, A. 197 7. Clothing and textiles:
Supplies, prices, and outlook for 1978.
Talk at the 1978 Food and Agricultural
Outlook Conference, November 1977,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash­ington,
D.C.
7. Thorp, F. C. 1975. Family expenditures:
The Farm Family Living Survey. Talk at
the National Agricultural Outlook Con­ference,
November 1975, U.S. Depart­ment
of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
8. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Statistical
Reporting Service. 1975. Farm-Operator
Family Expenditures for 1973. SpSy6
(9-75).
SOME NEW USDA PUBLICATIONS
(Please give your ZIP code in your return address when you order these.)
Single copies of the following are available free from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Please
address your request to the office indicated.
From Office of Governmental and Public Affairs, Washington, D.C. 20250:
• SELECTING AND GROWING SHADE TREES. G 205. Revised May 1978.
• INDOOR GARDENING. G 220. February 1978.
• GROWING BLACK WALNUTS FOR HOME USE. L 525. Revised May 1978.
From Food Safety and Quality Service, Information Division, Room 1078-S, Washington, D.C.
20250:
• INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM USDA'S FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY SERVICE.
FSQS-6. December 1977.
• HOW TO BUY CANNED AND FROZEN VEGETABLES. G 167. Revised November 1977.
From Economics, Statistics, and Cooperatives Service, Publications Unit, Room 0054, South
Building, Washington, D.C. 20250:
16
• THE HIRED FARM WORKING FORCE OF 1976. AER 405. July 1978.
• NATIONAL FOOD REVIEW (formerly called NATIONAL FOOD SITUATION). Quarterly.
Free to anyone with interests in food developments as they affect the consumer.
Subscription or single copy.
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
CHILDREN IN THE UNITED STATES1
by Cynthia L. jennings
The number of children in the United States
has declined by 8 percent (from 70 million to
64 million children) in the 7 years between
1970 and 1977 . During this period the birth
rate (births per 1,000 population) dropped
from 18.2 to 15.3. As the birth rate has
declined, children have become a smaller part
of the population: In 1977 children repre­sented
29.6 percent of the population com­pared
with 34.0 percent in 1970. Almost all of
this decline was accounted for by decreases in
numbers of children under the age of 14 years.
The number of farm children has been decreas­ing
faster than the number of children in the
total population. Between 1970 and 1976 the
number of farm children under age 14 de­creased
33 percent compared with only a
10-percent decrease for all children under age
14. This decline reflects the lowering of the
birth rate, the high net outmigration in earlier
decades of young farm adults of childbearing
age, and the general decline in the total farm
population.
Family Type
In 1978, over 99 percent of all children lived
in families. Of children in families almost 78
percent lived in a traditional husband-wife
family, with the father designated as the head
of the family (table 1). However, the number
of children living in this type of family has
decreased since 1970 when 86 percent of
children in families lived with both parents.
The number of children living with only one
parent has increased from 11 percent in 1970
to 17 percent in 1978. The largest increase was
among children living with their mother only.
The remaining 5 percent of children in families
lived in families where someone other than a
parent was the family head.
Today's families have fewer children. In
1977, the average number of children per
family was 2.00--down from 2.29 children in
1970.
In 1977, the median income of families with
children2 was $16,530. However, income levels
1 "Children" refers to all persons under 18 years of
age unless otherwise noted.
2 Includes only families with own never-married
children of the family head.
WINTER 1979
varied greatly between family types. The
median family income for husband-wife
families with children was almost three times
that of female-headed families-$18,504 and
$6,260, respectively. In 1977, about one-sixth
of all children lived in families with incomes
below the poverty level, compared with about
half of the children living in female-headed
families.
In 1978, almost half of all children had
mothers in the labor force (either employed or
seeking work)-an increase of 15 percent in
numbers since 1970. This increase reflects the
rise in the number of broken marriages, the
decline in the birth rate, and the sharp increase
of labor force activity of mothers with young
children. Mothers of children under age 6
increased their labor force participation at a
faster rate than other mothers between 1970
and 197 8, although older children were still
more likely to have a mother in the labor force
than were younger children (chart 1). In hus­band-
wife families, 52 percent of children ages
6-17 had a mother in the labor force compared
with 39 percent of children under age 6.
Children who lived with only their mother
CHILDREN WITH MOTHERS
IN THE LABOR FORCE
HUSBAND-WIFE FAMILIES
AGE OF CHILD~=.-~="'~""""""""'""""'"""'""""""""~
6-17
under 6
FAMILIES HEADED BY WOMEN
AGE OF CHILD
6-17
under 6
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
1978
17
were more likely to have their mother in the
labor force than children in husband-wife
families. About 61 percent of all children in
female-headed families had mothers in the
labor force compared with 48 percent of
children in husband-wife families.
The labor force participation of mothers has
a significant influence on median family
income. In husband-wife families with children,
the median family income in 1977 was
$19,878 when the mother was in the labor
force versus $17,237 when she was not. In
female-headed families with children, the
median family income when the mother was in
the labor force was almost double that of when
the mother was not in the labor force ($8,148
and $4,404, respectively).
Race
About 83 percent of all children were ·white,
15 percent were black, and 2 percent were
other races in 197 8. The majority of white
children age 19 and under lived in metropolitan
areas, with the largest number living outside
the central city. Black children also lived
primarily in metropolitan areas but with the
largest number living within the central city.
Although 99 percent of both white children
and black children- lived in families, the pre­dominant
form of the family varied. Most
white children (84 percent) lived with both
parents (father as the family head) while less
than half of black children ( 44 percent) lived
in this type of family (table 2). A larger
percentage of black children than white chil­dren
lived in other family arrangements such as
with their mother only, with their grandparent
or other relative as the family head, or with
neither parent present in the family (5 percent
versus 1 percent).
Between 1970 and 1978 the number of
black children living in families with both
parents (father as the family head) decreased
almost twice as much as the number of white
children in such families. The number of
children living with their mother only increased
about equally for both races. However, for
white children the increase was almost com­pletely
accounted for by children living with
their mother as the family head. For black
children, the biggest increase was among chil­dren
living with their mother with a grand­parent
or other relative as the family head.
There was an increase in the number of white
children living with their father only (father as
family head) and a decrease in the number of
black children in this type of family between
Table 1. Children in families, 1970 and 1978 1
All races
Category
1970 1978
Thousands Percent Thousands Percent
Children in families, total 69,725 100 62,767 100
Living with both parents 59,694 86 49,132 78
Living with mother only 7,678 11 10,725 17
Living with father only 761 1 985 2
Living with neither parent 1,593 2 1,924 3
1Persons under age 18; excludes children not living in families where
a relative is the family head.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
18 FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
f
I
1970 and 1978. However, the total numbers of
children of either race living with their father
only was small, compared with other family
types.
In 1977, the median family income for black
children ($8,932) was almost half that for
white children ($17,566). Similarly, a higher
percentage of black children than white chil­dren
lived in families that were below the
poverty level ( 40 percent versus 11 percent).
In general, black children were more likely
than white children to have a mother in the
labor force in 1978, 58 and 48 percent,
respectively. However, there were significant
differences by family type. In husband-wife
families, 64 percent of black children had a
mother in the labor force compared with 47
percent of white children. In contrast, 54
percent of black children in female-headed
families had a mother in the labor force versus
more than 64 percent of white children in this
situation.
Education
In 1977, 49 million children, or 90 percent
of all children ages 3-17, were enrolled in some
form of school from nursery school through
high school. This represents a 6-percent de­crease
in enrollment since 1970. The participa­tion
rate was 96 percent for children ages 5-6,
99 percent · for children ages 7-13, and 94
percent for chUdren ages 14-17. Rates are
lower for the younger children (3-6 years), but
they have increased in recent years-from 21 to
32 percent between 1970 and 1977.
In 1977, about 90 percent ( 44 million) of
children enrolled in school attended a public
school. This percent was similar for all levels of
school except nursery school where there are
fewer public facilities available. The majority
of nursery school students (65 percent) were
enrolled in private schools.
The number of children attending prepri­mary
programs (nursery school and kindergar­ten)
increased 18 percent between 1970 and
1976, even though the number of total chil­dren
ages 3-5 years decreased 11 percent during
the same time. The labor force status and
occupation of the mother was an important
influence on enrollment of the 3-to-5-year-olds
in school. In 1976, 45 percent of these children
who were enrolled in school had a mother in
the labor force compared with 39 percent of
those not enrolled in school. A larger propor­tion
of 3- and 4-year-old children whose
mothers were employed as white-collar workers
were enrolled in school than children whose
mothers were employed in other occupations.
For 5-year-olds, the enrollment rates were
similar between occupations. Education of the
Table 2. Children in families, by race, 1978 1
Category White Black
Thousands Percent Thousands Percent
Children in families, total 52,261 100 9,236 100
Living with both parents 44,001 84 4,094 44
Living with mother only 6,592 13 3,978 43
Living with father only 770 1 195 2
Living with neither parent 897 2 969 11
lPersons under age 18; excludes children not living in families where
a relative is the family head.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
WINTER 1979 19
mothers also had an influence on enrollment of
children in pre primary programs. In 197 6, the
rate of 3-to-5-year-olds enrolled in school was
38 percent if the mother had completed
8 years or less of school, 48 percent if the
mother had completed high school, and 70
percent if the mother had completed 4 years or
more of college.
Child Care
Although arrangements made for child care
vary somewhat with the mother's labor force
activity and whether the child is enrolled in
school, the majority of children 3 to 13 years
old in 197 4 and 197 5 were cared for primarily
by a parent in their own home (chart 2).
In families with children 3 to 13 years old
whose mother was in the labor force, care by
parents was still the most common form of
child care, but other arrangements were also
frequently used. For children of employed
mothers, parental care accounted for 61 per­cent;
self-care by child, 10 percent; care by
another relative in the child's home, 9 percent;
and care in someone else's home, 13 percent.
School enrollment influences arrangements
for child care. School-age children who have
working mothers are more likely to be cared
for primarily by a parent than are preschool­age
children (64 percent versus 54 percent).
This may be that mothers arrange to work part
time while the child is in school. Also, some
children 7 to 13 years old may be mature
enough to care for themselves until one of their
parents returns from work. In fact, almost 14
percent of these older children of employed
mothers care for themselves.
DAYTIME CARE OF CHILDREN
Mother
1%
Cared for by: m Parents in own home
D Other than parents in own home
Elill Outside own home
Mother
Children 3 to 13 years old, 1974 and 1975. Excludes 1.3 million children with no
mother present or for whom there was no data available. Source: Bureau of Census.
Chart 2
Children 3 to 6 years old are less likely to be
enrolled in school and often require full-time
care. Therefore, of these younger children with
employed mothers, almost 30 percent are cared
for in someone else's home with about half of
these being cared for by relatives. Young
children of employed mothers are also much
more likely to be cared for in a day-care center
than older children. However, the actual num­ber
of children in day-care centers is small in
comparison with other child-care arrangements.
References
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the
Census. 1971. Marital status and living
arrangements: March 1970. Current Pop­ulation
Reports, Series P-20, No. 212.
Bureau of the Census. 1976. Day­time
care of children: October 197 4 and
February 197 5. Current Population
Reports, Series P-20, No 298.
----Bureau of the Census. 1977. Farm
population of the United States: 1976.
20
Current Population Reports, Series P-27,
No. 49.
---- Bureau of the Census. 1978. Nur­sery
school and kindergarten enrollment
of children and labor force status of their
mothers: October 1967 to October 1976.
Current Population Reports, Series P-20,
No. 318.
----Bureau of the Census. 1978. School
enrollment-social and economic charac-
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
teristics of students: October 1977.
Current Population Reports, Series P-20,
No. 321.
----Bureau of the Census. 1978. Popula­tion
profile of the United States: 1977.
Current Population Reports, Series P-20,
No. 324.
---- Bureau of the Census. 1978. Esti­mates
of the population of the United
States by age, sex, and race: 1970 to
1977. Current Population Reports, Series
P-25, No. 721.
----Bureau of the Census. 1978. Money
income and poverty status of families and
persons in the United States: 1977
(Advance report) . Current Population
Reports, Series P-60, No. 116.
---- Bureau of the Census. Unpublished
data. Family relationship and presence of
parents, for persons under 18 years old,
by age and race, March 1978.
---- Bureau of the Census. Unpublished
Current Population Survey data. Percent
distribution of the population under 25
years old, by metropolitan-nonmetro­politan
residence, race, and age: April
1977.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics. 1971. Children of women in the
labor force, March 1970. Special Labor
Force Report 134.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1978.
Unpublished data. Children of working
mothers.
CHILDREN LIVING IN ONE-PARENT FAMILIES1
by Marsha Freeman Epstein
Population Trends
At a time when the total number of children
living in families was declining, the number
who lived with just one parent was on the rise
(see chart). In 1978, 11.7 million children lived
in one-parent families and accounted for one of
five children living in families, up from one of
eight in 1970.
Despite popular belief, the percent of chil­dren
in one-parent families living with their
father has remained relatively constant in
recent years. Although more men may cur­rently
be raising children than in previous
years, these male-headed, one-parent families
contain fewer children than their female­headed
counterparts. In 1977, the female­headed,
one-parent family contained an average
of 1.99 children, while the male-headed, one­parent
family averaged only 1. 66 children. 2
The· increase in the number of children living in
one-parent families from 1970 to 1978 is due
1 Unless otherwise noted, "children" refers to all
persons under 18 years of age who are related to the
family head, except those who head families or who
are wives of family heads.
2 Includes only own unmarried children of the
family head .
WINTER 1979
almost entirely to the increase in the number
of children living with their mother.
Regardless of the sex of the parent, approxi­mately
40 percent of all children in one-parent
families live with a divorced parent. This large
number of divorced parents may be attributed
CHILDREN IN FAMILIES
MIL. CHILDREN
80 -
60
40
20
0
1970 72 74 76 78
Children under 18. Excludes 3 million children living in families where a relative
other than the parent is head of the household. Also excludes Y.? million children not
living in families. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
21
to several factors such as liberalized divorce
laws, society's relaxed attitude toward divorce,
and free legal services to lower income families.
With the exception of divorce, the marital
status distribution of one-parent family heads
differs according to the sex of the parent. In
female-headed, one-parent families 27 percent
of all children live with a separated mother and
12 percent live with a widowed parent. Male­headed,
one-parent families exhibit the reverse
pattern. Seventeen percent of the children live
with a separated father and 21 percent live
with a widowed parent. More single, never­married
men and women are raising children
than previously. Single parents raise 15 percent
of all children in female-headed, one-parent
families, and 7 percent of all children in male­headed,
one-parent families.
I nco me and Labor Force Status
Although both male- and female-headed,
one-parent families must face the psychological
and physical stress of raising children without
the aid of a spouse, the female-headed, one­parent
family has the additional burden of
coping with severe economic conditions that
generally are not shared by its male counter­part.
In 1976, 52 percent of all children living
in female-headed, one-parent families were
living below the poverty level, compared with
only 17 percent of all children living in
male-headed, one-parent families.
The median income of one-parent families in
1977 varied with sex as well as race of the
parent (see footnote 2). While the median
income for male-headed, one-parent families
was $13,698, that for females was only $6,260.
When race was considered, the male-headed
families continued to have higher income levels
than their female counterparts, as shown
below.
Median income, 1977
Male .•......
Female .•....
22
White
$14,684
6,981
Black
$9,167
5,357
Labor force status of the family head also
affected the amount of income reported by the
family. For example, male-headed families with
the head in the labor force had a median
income of $14,770, compared with $8,148 for
females. When not in the labor force, there is
little difference in the income of male ($5,081)
and female ($4,404) one-parent family heads.
Sixty percent of all children in female­headed,
one-parent families have a parent in
the labor force, compared with 84 percent of
all children in male-headed, one-parent fami­lies.
Children of school age ( 6 years of age or
older) are more likely than younger children to
have a mother in the labor force. A higher
proportion of white than black children in
female-headed, one-parent families have a
mother in the labor force.
Women in the labor force tend to be
concentrated in low-skilled, high-turnover posi­tions
such as clerical workers, operatives, and
service workers. Some changes occurred in the
occupational distribution of female family
heads between 1970 and 1977. A higher
percent of these women are moving into
professional and managerial positions, and the
percent of women in household service jobs is
shrinking. However, the percentage of clerical
workers has remained relatively constant.
Demands of single-parenting may compete
or interfere with those of earning a living. For
example, a single parent may turn down
overtime work or business trips because of
child-care responsibilities or may miss work
because a child is ill or otherwise needs care.
Such responsibilities may affect earnings by
limiting hours worked and opportunities for
advancement. Unlike two-parent families, the
one-parent family cannot rely on the income of
a spouse to supplement its income. Data on
families in which the wife works indicate that a
wife's earnings represent 26 percent of the
family's income.
Expenditure and Living Patterns
Data from the 1972-73 Consumer Expendi­ture
Survey indicate that, in general, the
expenditure pattern for one-parent families is
similar to that of low-income families, who
must use a greater share of their money on the
necessities of housing and food than do fami­lies
with higher incomes. This leaves a smaller
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
share for transportation, recreation, and other
items.
The average dollar amount spent on housing
by one-parent families was only three-fourths
as much as that of two-parent families, yet that
amount constituted 37 percent of their con­sumption
expenditures compared with 29 per­cent
for the two-parent family. Although hous­ing
represented the largest portion of the
one-parent family's total expenditure, two­thirds
of these families are renters and not able
to enjoy the benefits or the asset accumulation
available from home ownership.
One-parent families tend to be smaller and,
thus, have fewer people to feed than two­parent
families ( 3.2 persons compared with
4.2). In dollar terms, one-parent families spend
less on food than two-parent families-about
two-thirds as much-but as a proportion of
their total budget, they spend more-22 per­cent
compared with 20 percent.
In the area of transportation, however, the
one-parent family spent less than the two­parent
family both in amount (only 43 percent
as much) and as a proportion of the total (14
percent compared with 20 percent). This may
be due to the fact that almost every two-parent
family owns at least one car, while just over
half of all one-parent families own a car.
Despite having to manage within an income
that averages lower than that of the two-parent
family and is more heavily committed to
necessities, the one-parent family may have to
absorb additional expenditures that are not as
prevalent in the budget of two-parent families.
For example, an employed single parent may
need to arrange for child care during the day,
and babysitters may be needed more fre­quently
in the evening. Since the employed
single parent is usually not available to drive
children to and from school or social activities,
transportation must be arranged. Due to the
busy schedule of an employed single parent,
there is little time for normal household
management chores in addition to the primary
tasks of earning a living and raising children.
For example, when time and money resources
are limited, changes may occur in patterns of
meal preparation. Families may choose to
purchase more convenience foods, eat out
more frequently, or hire outside help to pre­pare
meals. In addition to meal preparation, a
family may need outside assistance to perform
the tasks of laundry and general housework.
All of these alternatives would lessen the
workload of an employed single parent, but
may also increase the family's financial burden.
References
Johnson, B. L. 1978. Women who head fami­lies:
1970-77-Their numbers rose,
income lagged. Monthly Labor Review
101(2): 32-37.
Kline, K. L. 197 4. Other families: Families
without spouses. Family Economics
Review. Summer issue, pp. 18-20.
Schlesinger, B. 1978. Single parent fathers: A
research review. Children Today 7(3): 12,
18-19, 37-39.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the
Census. 1971. Marital status and family
status: March 1970. Current Population
Reports, Series P-20, No. 212.
----Bureau of the Census. 1978. House­hold
and family characteristics: March
1977. Current Population Reports, Series
P-20, No. 326.
---- Bureau of the Census. 197 8. Charac-
WINTER 1979
teristics of the population below the
poverty level: 1976. Current Population
Reports, Series P-60, No. 115.
----Bureau of the Census. 1978. Unpub­lished
data. Family relationship and pres­ence
of parents, for persons under 18
years old, by age and race, March 1978.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics. 1977. Marital and family
characteristics of the labor force in March
1976. Special Labor Force Report 206.
---- Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1978.
Consumer Expenditure Survey: Integrated
diary and interview survey data, 1972-73.
Bulletin 1992.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1978.
Unpublished income and labor force par­ticipation
data.
23
CHILDREN'S DIETS
by Cynthia Cromwell Junker
Most of the decisions about the kinds and
amounts of food the young child eats are made
by parents, usually the mother. The mother's
nutrition knowledge, attitudes toward meal
planning and food preparation, and permissive­ness
are factors influencing the nutritive qual­ity
of diets of preschool children ( 3). Parents
who provide meals and snacks that are sound
nutritionally not only support growth and
development of the child but probably estab­lish
a strong base for a lifetime food consump­tion
as well.
Nutrient Needs
The 197 4 Recommended Dietary Allow­ances
(RDA) (1) for children are shown in
table 1. The RDA are the levels of intake of
nutrients considered by the Food and Nutri­tion
Board, on the basis of scientific knowl­edge,
to be adequate to meet the known
nutritional needs of practically all healthy
children. They take into consideration average
growth rates of normal children. When rapid
growth in a short time occurs, additional food
energy and nutrients may be needed.
As children grow, their need for nutrients
and for food energy (calories) increases but not
necessarily at the same rate. As a boy grows
from a preschool child into a teenager, nutrient
allowances for ascorbic acid, vitamins D and E,
calcium, phosphorus, iron, and zinc increase
proportionately less than the allowance for
energy. Therefore, diets to meet the RDA in
early years must provide more of these nutri­ents
per 1,000 calories of food energy than in
later years (table 1). For other nutrients the
increase in the RDA 's with age is about the
same or slightly more than for energy.
The nutrient and food energy needs of the
girl also increase as she moves toward adoles­cence.
But her energy needs slowly decline
after early teens. The RDA for food energy for
the 15- to 19-year-old girl is 400 to 900
calories lower than for a boy of the same age.
However, the girl has a similar or higher
allowance than the boy for most nutrients­protein,
ascorbic acid, folacin, vitamin B6 ,
vitamin B1 2 , calcium, phosphorus, iron, and
zinc. This means that the teenage girl, to
24
control her weight, usually must eat less food
(measured in calories) than the teenage boy.
Furthermore, the assortment of foods eaten by
the teenage girl must provide more nutrients
per 1,000 calories than is necessary for the
teenage boy. For each 1,000 calories she needs
almost 40 to 50 percent more iron, calcium,
phosphorus, zinc, ascorbic acid, vitamins D,
B6 , B1 2 , and folacin than the teenage boy.
Because of this, girls may find it more difficult
than boys to select foods that provide the
nutrients recommended while avoiding over­weight.
It is especially difficult for a female, 11
years and older, to meet her allowance for
iron-18 mg-from a typical American diet.
Diet Quality
There are several indicators of the nutri­tional
quality of children's diets. Some come
from nationwide surveys. The USDA House­hold
Food Consumption Survey showed that a
day's food intake for most of the sex-age
groups studied, from infants to young adults,
provided 90 percent or more of the 197 4 RDA
for energy (calories), protein, vitamin A value,
thiamin, riboflavin, and ascorbic acid ( 4).
However, average intakes for many sex-age
groups were well below the allowance for iron;
average intakes for teenage girls were well
below the allowance for calcium, as well. In
low-income families average intakes of several
sex-age groups were below recommended
allowances for calcium, iron, ascorbic acid, and
vitamin A value.
The Health and Nutrition Examination Sur­vey
(HANES) found that, in 1971-72, 14
percent of the white and 23 percent of the
black children 1 to 5 years of age consumed
food providing less than 1,000 calories on the
day studied-considerably less than their allow­ance
for food energy. Average iron intakes
were below the 1968 RDA for children 1 to 5
years and 12 to 17 years of age; vitamin A
intake was below the RDA for children 12 to
17 years (5).
In several States surveyed by the Ten-State
Nutrition Survey in 1968-70, children from
low-income families who were under 7 years of
age and had poor diets also had poor growth
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
:;: ...... z
>-':3 t<:l Table 1. Recommended Dietary Allowances (1974) for children
,~_.
tO
-l
tO Allowance Allowance per 1,000 calories
Nutrient Unit Child, Child, Teenage Teenage Child, Child, Teenage Teenage
1-3 7-10 boy girl 1-3 7-10 boy girl
years years years years
Food energy .......... cal 1,300 2,400 3,000 2,100
Protein .............. g 23 36 54 48 18 15 18 23
Fat-soluble vitamins:
Vitamin A .......... I. u. 2,000 3,300 5,000 4,000 1,538 1,375 1,667 1,905
Vitamin E .......... I. u. 7 10 15 12 5 4 5 6
Vitamin D ...•...... I. u. 400 400 400 400 308 167 133 190
Water-soluble
vitamins:
Ascorbic acid ...... mg 40 40 45 45 31 17 15 21
Folacin ............ mg .1 . 3 . 4 .4 .08 .12 .13 .19
Niacin .....•....... mg equiv 9 16 20 14 7 7 7 7
Riboflavin ......... mg .8 1.2 1.8 1.4 . 6 .5 . 6 . 7
Thiamin ............ mg . 7 1.2 1.5 1.1 .5 . 5 . 5 .5
Vitamin B6 ......... mg . 6 1.2 2.0 2.0 . 5 . 5 . 7 1.0
Vitamin B12 ........ ].lg 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 .8 .8 1.0 1.4
Minerals:
Calcium ....•....... mg 800 800 1,200 1,200 615 333 400 571
Phosphorus ......... mg 800 800 1,200 1,200 615 333 400 571
Iodine ....•.•...... mg 60 llO 150 ll5 46 46 50 55
Iron ............... mg 15 10 18 18 12 4 6 9
Magnesium •......... mg 150 250 400 300 ll5 104 133 143
Zinc .........•..... mg 10 10 15 15 8 4 5 7
Source: Calculated from Recommended Dietary Allowances. 1974. 8th ed. National Academy of Sciences,
National Research Council, Food and Nutrition Board.
1.-.:l
01
achievement as measured by height and had
poor tooth development and numerous caries
(6). Other nutrition surveys have found chil­dren's
diets low in calcium, iron, vitamin A,
and ascorbic acid ( 3).
A consistently low level of nutrients, as
measured by the RDA, in the diet can lead to
undernourishment. Some studies have demon­strated
that undernourished children become
fatigued easily and are unable to sustain pro­longed
physical and mental effort and to fully
participate in learning experiences (2).
Obesity can also be an indicator of improper
nutrition among children. One cause of obesity
is energy intake greater than energy expendi­ture
over a prolonged period of time. While
there is much controversy over whether the
obese child will likely become an obese adult,
extreme obesity at any age is recognized as a
health problem.
Dental caries, common among all groups of
children, can be another diet-related problem.
A contributing factor is frequent intake of
sweet foods ( 2) coupled with poor oral
hygiene.
Food Plans and Costs
Children need a varied diet-they need a
good assortment of fruits and vegetables
(including some that are rich in vitamins A and
C); meat, poultry, fish, and alternates such as
dried beans, nuts, eggs (to provide protein,
iron, B-vitamins, and other minerals and vita­mins);
cereals and breads, whole-grain, enriched
or fortified (to provide protein and other
nutrients, especially iron and certain B-vita­mins);
and milk and milk products (especially
for calcium, protein, riboflavin, and other
nutrients). Foods in these groups are also
counted on for food energy.
Assortments of foods which provide the
amounts of nutrients recommended for chil­dren
of different ages are illustrated by the
USDA food plans. 1 Amounts of food for a
week in the low-cost food plan are shown in
table 2. The quantities of most foods increase
1 USDA's four food plans are described in "Family
Food Budgeting for Good Meals and Good Nutrition,"
Home and Garden Bulletin No. 94. Single copies are
available from the Office of Governmental and Public
Affairs, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D.C. 20250. Request publication by name and number
and include your ZIP code.
26
in the plans for a boy as he grows older and his
RDA's increase. More than twice as much of
some foods are suggested in the plan for a
teenage as for a preschool boy. Because a girl
age 12-19 years needs fewer calories than a boy
of the same age, her food plan has less of many
foods-meat and alternates; potatoes; cereal,
flour, bread, and bakery products; fats and oils;
and sugars. Her plan has about the same
amount of milk, cheese, ice cream, and citrus
fruit and tomatoes; and slightly more dark­green,
deep-yellow vegetables, and other vege­tables
and fruits than the boy's plan. Dark­green
leafy vegetables are especially important
in her plan, because they are good sources of
iron and vitamin A but relatively low in calo­ries.
Approximate amounts of food from the
low-cost plan that might be served daily are
shown in table 3. Fried and fatty foods and
sweets and sugary foods should be limited so
that these foods do not crowd out more
nutritious foods in the diet and so that their
consumption does not lead to overweight.
The cost of feeding a child also increases
with the age of the child. The low-cost food
plan costs twice as much for a teenage boy
($16.60 a week, August 1978) as for a pre­school
child ($8.40); and 1-2/3 times as much
for a teenage girl ($13.90) as for a preschool
child ($8.40). These costs are for children in a
four-person family. They cover all meals and
snacks for the week and assume that all food is
bought and prepared at home. If some meals
are bought away from home, costs may be
higher. Meals bought at most schools, on the
other hand, may cost no more or even less than
meals allowed for in the plan. This is because
school meals frequently are subsidized through
the National School Lunch Program and the
School Breakfast Program.
To help control increasing food costs, select
less expensive food from the food plan groups.
Some of these foods are popular with children;
others may provide a new taste sensation.
• Buy fresh milk at a grocery or dairy store.
Purchase milk in half- or 1-gallon con­tainers.
Use nonfat dry milk, which is less
expensive than fluid milk, in cooking and
as a beverage at least part of the time.
• Use some eggs, cheese, dry beans or peas,
or peanut butter some of the time to
replace meat. These foods provide protein
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
and most other nutrients that meat sup­plies.
• When buying fresh vegetables and fruit,
take advantage of seasonal abundance.
Some vegetables and fruits, however, even
in season, may not be within your budget.
Fresh cabbage, carrots, collards, celery,
onions, potatoes, bananas, and oranges,
and many canned and frozen vegetables,
fruits, and juices are usually good buys
most of the year.
• Try lower priced brands. They may be
similar in quality to more expensive ones.
• Buy flour, breads, or cereals that are
whole-grain or enriched. Use them in
some form at every meal to get your
money's worth in nutrients. Use cereals
prepared at home rather than instant or
ready-to-eat ones most of the time. When
buying ready-to-eat cereals, select those
that are not sugar-coated and, if practical,
those in family-size boxes.
Table 2. 1 week's food for children, low-cost food plan
Quantity per week1
Food group Unit Child, Child, Teenage Teenage
1-5 6-11 boy girl
years years
Milk, cheese, ice cream 2 • • • qt 3.8 5.1 5.6 5.6
Meat, poultry, fish, eggs,
dry legumes, nuts 3 . . . . . . • . lb 2.0 3.1 4.4 3.3
Dark-green, deep-yellow
vegetables ...........•.... lb .24 .34 .39 .46
Citrus fruit, tomatoes ..••• lb 1.1 1.9 2.1 2.2
Pot a toes . • . . . • . . . • . . . . • . • • . lb .75 1.26 1. 73 1.17
Other vegetables, fruit.... lb
Cereal, pasta . . . • . • . . . • . • . . lb
2.9 4.2 4.3 4.6
4 .94 1.18 .99 .75
Flour, mixes .. ~............ lb .29 .54 .72 .63
Bread • . . . • . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . lb .85 1.46 2.02 1.44
Other bakery products ...•.. lb
Fats, oils . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . lb
Sugar, sweets .......•...•.. lb
.47 1.02 1.44 1.05
.28 .56 .94 .53
.57 1.02 1.08 .88
Estimated weekly cost,
August 1978 5 . . . . . . • . • . • . dol 8.40 13.20 16.60 13.90
1Amounts are for food as purchased or brought into the kitchen from garden
or farm. Amounts allow for a discard of about one-tenth of the edible food
as plate waste, spoilage, etc. In addition to groups shown, most people use
some other foods: Tea, cocoa, soft drinks, punches, ades, leavening agents,
and seasonings.
2Fluid milk and beverage made from dry or evaporated milk. Cheese and ice
cream may replace some milk. See table 3.
3Weight in terms of dry beans and peas, shelled nuts, and peanut butter.
Count 1 pound of canned dry beans, such as pork and beans or kidney beans,
as 0.33 pound.
4cereal fortified with iron is recommended for children 1-2 years old.
5costs are for children in a 4-person family.
WINTER 1979 27
References
1. National Academy of Sciences, National
Research Council, Food and Nutrition
Board. 197 4. Recommended Dietary
Allowances. 8th ed. Washington, .D.C.
2. Pipes, P.L. 1977. Nutrition in Infancy and
Childhood. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Com­pany.
3. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricul­tural
Research Service. 1970. The back­ground
paper on food and nutrition for
the 197 0-71 White House Conference on
Children and Youth. Unnumbered publi-cation.
4. Agricultural Research Service.
1972. Food and nutrient intake of indi-viduals
in the United States, Spring 1965.
Household Food Consumption Survey
1965-66. Rpt. No. 11.
5. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare; Health Resources Administra­tion.
197 4. Preliminary findings of the
First Health and Nutrition Survey,
United States, 1971-72: Dietary intake
and biochemical findings. DHEW Pub.
No. (HRA)7 4-1219-1.
6. Health Services and Mental
Health Administration. 1972. Ten-State
Nutrition Survey, 1968-1970: Highlights.
DHEW Pub. No. (HSM)72-8134.
Table 3. Food to serve each day, low-cost food plan 1
Food group
Milk (3/4 oz hard cheese; or
3/4 cup cottage cheese, ice
cream, ice milk; or 1/2 cup
unflavored yogurt = 1/2 cup
fluid milk)
Cooked lean meat or alternate
(1 oz cooked poultry or fish,
1 egg, 1/2 cup cooked dry
beans or peas, or 2 tbsp
peanut butter = 1 oz cooked
lean meat)
Vegetables and fruit (1/2 cup
or portion = 1 med. apple,
banana, orange, or 1/2 med.
grapefruit or cantaloup)
Cereal and bakery products-­enriched
or whole grain
(1 portion = 2 slices bread;
1 bun; 1 large muffin or
cupcake; 1 oz ready-to-eat
cereal; or 3/4 cup cooked
cereal, as oatmeal, rice,
noodles)
Unit
cup
ounce
1/2 cup
portion
Child,
1-5
years
2 to 3
2 to 3
2 to 3
3 or
more
1Amounts as shown allow for some plate waste.
28
Child,
6-11
years
2 to 3
3 to 4
3 to 4
5 or
more
Teenage
boy
3 to 4
5 to 6
4 to 5
6 or
more
Teenage
girl
3 to 4
4
4
5 or
more
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
URBAN FAMILY BUDGETS-AUTUMN 1977
The Bureau of Labor Statistics has updated
to autumn 1977 its three hypothetical annual
budgets for an urban family and the compara­tive
indexes for selected urban areas. This
updating reflects changes in prices and personal
taxes between autumn 1976 and autumn 1977.
In autumn 1977, the U.S. average cost of the
lower budget for an urban family of four was
$10,481 a year, and the intermediate and
higher levels were $17,106 and $25,202,
respectively. These budgets represent a total
budget cost increase over autumn 1976 of 4.4
percent for the lower budget, 5.4 percent for
the intermediate budget, and 6.1 percent for
the higher budget.
With the exception of housing, costs went
up about the same for each budget level.
Medical care costs showed the largest increase,
9.4 percent, and clothing the smallest increase,
3.6 percent. Housing increased less in the two
higher budget levels than in the lowest because
homeowner costs, which are included only in
the intermediate and higher budgets, increased
less than rental costs. This difference, however,
was more than offset in the total budget by a
decrease in personal taxes in the lower budget
and increases in personal taxes in the higher
levels.
The budgets represent the costs of three
hypothetical lists of goods and services that
were specified in the mid-1960's to portray
three relative standards of living. The hypothet­ical
urban family of four is defined as a
38-year-old husband employed full time, a
nonworking wife, a boy of 13, and a girl of 8.
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 1978, Autumn 1977 urban family budgets
and comparative indexes for selected urban areas,
News, USDL 78-393.
Annual budgets for a 4-person family at 3 levels of living, urban
United States, autumn 1977
Component
Total budget ..................•
Total family consumption ...... .
Food .......•.................
Housing ...........•.....•....
Transportation .............. .
Clothing ...............•.....
Personal care ..........•.....
Medical care ..........•.....•
Other family consumption .....
Other i terns ...............•....
Taxes and deductions .......... .
Social security & disability .
Personal income taxes ....••..
Lower
$10,481
8,657
3,190
2,083
804
828
282
980
489
472
1,352
632
720
Intermediate
$17,106
13,039
4,098
4,016
1,472
1,182
377
985
909
763
3,303
961
2,342
Higher
$25,202
17,948
5,159
6,085
1,913
1,730
535
1,027
1,499
1,288
5,965
985
4,980
Source: Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1978, Autumn
1977 urban family budgets and comparative indexes for selected urban areas,
News, USDL 78-393.
WINTER 1979 29
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Cost of food at home estimated for food plans at 4 cost levels, September 1978, U.S. average 1
Sex-age groups
FAMILIES
Family of 2: 3
20-54 years •.•••••.•••..
55 years and over,,,,,,,
Family of 4:
Couple, 20-54 years and
children--
1-2 and 3-5 years
6-8 and 9-11 years
INDIVIDUALS 4
Child:
7 months to 1 year .••••.
1-2 years .•••••••••••.••
3-5 years •..••••••••.••.
6-8 years •.••.•••••••.••
9-11 years ••..•••••....•
Male:
12-14 years ••...•.••.•••
15-19 years ••.••••• • •.•.
20-54 years .•.•••..•..•.
55 years and over ..•.• • .
Female:
12-19 years .•.•....•....
20-54 years •..••...•••••
55 years and over •••••..
Pregnant ••..••••.•••....
Nursing .••••••••.•••..•.
Thrifty
plan2
26.00
23.30
36.60
44.10
5.20
5.90
7.10
9.10
ll.40
12.20
13.40
13.00
11.60
10.90
10.60
9.60
13.40
14.20
Cost f or 1 week
Low-cost Moderate-plan
cost plan
33.90
30.30
47.20
56.90
6.30
7.50
8.90
ll.60
14.50
15.40
17.10
17.00
15.00
13.80
13.80
12.50
17.10
18.10
Dollars
42.60
37.50
59.00
71.50
7.70
9.20
11.10
14.60
18.20
19.30
21.50
21.50
18.70
17.10
17.20
15.40
21.00
22.50
Liberal
plan
50.90
44.70
70.60
85.50
9.10
ll.OO
13.30
17.40
21.80
23.10
25.80
25.80
22.40
20.40
20.50
18.20
24.90
26.70
Thrifty
plan2
112.90
101.20
159.00
191.30
22.50
25.50
30.90
39.30
49.40
52.70
58.00
56.50
50.20
47.10
46.10
41.80
58.00
61.60
Cost for 1 month
Low-cost Moderate-plan
cost plan
Dollars
147.10
131.00
204.80
246.90
27.30
32.40
38.70
50.30
62.90
66.90
74.20
73.70
65.10
60.00
60.00
54.00
74.00
78.50
184.50
162.30
255.60
309.80
33.40
40.00
47.90
63.10
79.00
83.80
93.00
93.10
80.90
74.30
74.60
66.60
91.00
97.60
Liberal
plan
220.80
193.70
305.80
370.80
39.50
47.50
57.60
75.50
94.60
100.20
111.70
lll.90
97.20
88.60
88.80
78.90
108.00
115.80
1Assumes that food for all meals and snacks is purchased at the store and prepared at home. Estimates for each plan
were computed from quantities of foods published in the Winter 1976 (thrifty plan) and Winter 1975 (low-cost, moderate­cost,
and liberal plans) issues of Family Economics Review. The costs of the food plans were first estimated using
prices paid in 1965-66 by households from USDA's Household Food Consumption Survey with food costs at 4 selected levels.
USDA updates these survey prices to estimate the current costs for the food plans using information from the Bureau of
Labor Statistics' "Estimated Retail Food Prices by Cities" from 1965-66 to 1977 and "CPI Detailed Report," tables 3 and
9, after 1977.
2coupon allotment in the Food Stamp Program based on this food plan.
310 percent added for family size adjustment. See footnote 4.
4The costs given are for individuals in 4-person families. For individuals in other size families, the following
adjustments are suggested: 1-person--add 20 percent; 2-person--add 10 percent; 3-person--add 5 percent; 5-or-6-person-­subtract
5 percent; 7-or-more-pe~son--subtract 10 percent.
n
0
fl)
-t
,,0
0
0
0
~
%
0
3:
m
CONSUMER PRICES
Consumer Price Index for all urban consumers
Gr.oup
All items ........•...........
Food •••..................•.
Food at home .•......•....
Food away from home .•....
Housing .•.•.......•......••
Shelter ...•....•.....•.•.
Rent ......•.••.. . •.....
Homeownership .•........
Fuel and other utilities .
Fuel oil, coal, and
bottled gas .......•...
Gas (piped) and
electricity .......••..
Household furnishings
and operation ..•........
Apparel and upkeep ........•
Men's and boys' apparel ..
Women's and girls' apparel
Footwear ...........•.••..
Transportation ............ .
Private ••....•...........
Public ....•.....•........
Medical care •..••..•...•...
Entertainment ............. .
Other goods and services .. .
Personal care ..... . ..... .
(1967 = 100)
Sept.
1978
199.3
215.6
214.1
223.2
207.5
216.2
166.4
234.2
218.8
295.7
237.9
180.5
161.9
158.7
152.3
165.7
188.7
188.3
188.2
222.6
178.3
187.8
184.9
Aug.
1978
197.8
215.4
214.5
221.7
205.2
213.3
165.1
230.6
218.1
294.2
236.9
178.9
159.6
156.7
149.1
163.5
188.1
187.7
187.6
221.4
177.4
184.0
183.1
July
1978
196.7
215.0
214.7
219.9
203.8
211.3
164.2
228.3
218.0
294.5
237.2
178.1
158.0
156.3
146.4
162.1
187.2
186.8
187.7
219.4
177.0
183.1
182.4
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Sept.
1977
184.0
194.5
192.2
203.7
192.7
194.7
155.3
209.1
205.5
285.1
218.0
178.9
156.2
155.8
148.6
158.1
178.5
177.9
184.1
206.3
160.6
172.8
WINTER 1979 31
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
WINTER 1979
CONTENTS
Page
THE COST OF RAISING FARM CHILDREN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Carolyn S. Edwards and Brucy Gray
CONSUMER AWARENESS AND USE OF UNIT PRICING .. . . ....................... 11
CLOTHING BUDGETS FOR FARM CHILDREN, 1977 ................ . ............. 12
Annette Polyzou, Carolyn S. Edwards, and Mills B. Weinstein
CHILDREN IN THE UNITED STATES ........................................... 17
Cynthia L. Jennings
CHILDREN LIVING IN ONE-PARENT FAMILIES ............................. .. .. 21
Marsha Freeman Epstein
CHILDREN'S DIETS .................................................... ..... 24
Cynthia Cromwell Junker
URBAN FAMILY BUDGETS-AUTUMN 1977 ........ . ................... ......... 29
Regular Features
SOME NEW USDA PUBLICATIONS ............................................. 16
COST OF FOOD AT HOME .................. . .................... .. .. ........ 30
CONSUMER PRICES . . ..... ............. .. ..... . ............................. 31
Issued December 1978
32 FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW