Family Economics Review [1975, Number 1]

              I) ?7, '7 j g .' 97
HIGHLIGHTS/VVINTER 1975
ANNUAL OUTLOOK ISSUE
PROPERTY OF THE
LIBRARY
APR l 1975
UNIVERSITY OF N
AT GREEN~~TO~gAROLJNA
ARS-NE-36
Consumer and Food Economics Institute
Agricultural Research Service
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW is a quarterly
report on research of the Consumer and Food
Economics Institute and on information from
other sources relating to economic aspects of
family living. It is prepared primarily for home
economics agents and home economics
specialists of the Cooperative Extension
Service.
Authors are on the staff of the Consumer and Food
Economics Institute unless otherwise noted.
Editor: Katherine S. Tippett Assistant Editor: Marilyn Doss Ruffin
Consumer and Food Economics Institute
Agricultural Research Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Federal Building
Hyattsville, Md. 20782
USDA FAMILY FOOD PLANS, 1974
by Betty Peterkin
Three USDA family food plans-low-cost,
moderate-cost, and liberal-have been revised.
The cost of food at home released by the
Department of Agriculture each month will be
based on the revised plans starting with the
December 1974 estimates.
What are the USDA Food Plans?
The food plans are amounts of foods of
different types (food groups) that families
might buy, or obtain by home production, to
provide nutritious diets for family members at
different levels of cost (tables 1, 2, and 3).
Such food plans have served for more than 40
years as guides for estimating food needs and
food costs of families and population groups.
At each level of cost, amounts of foods for
men, women, and children of different ages
and for pregnant and nursing women are
suggested. A plan for any family can be
determined by totaling amounts of foods
suggested for persons of the sex and age of
family members. Food co·sts for a family
following the plan can be estimated from costs
of the plans released each month.
Amounts of food in the plans are specified
for 15 food groups (see tables 1, 2, and 3).
Foods within a food group are similar to each
other in nutritive value. In some groups-meat,
poultry, and fish, for example-one food in the
group might be used to replace another in a
meal. Although each group is of special impor­tance
for one or more nutrients or as a source
of food energy, several groups may provide
appreciable amounts of the same nutrient. The
cost of providing the nutrient may differ con­siderably
among groups. For example, foods in
the meat and bread groups provide iron; how­ever
a milligram of iron from the meat group
costs much more than a milligram of iron from
the bread group.
The low-cost plan and the moderate-cost
plan, shown in tables 1 and 2, provide diets
consistent with food patterns that are typical
of those of most groups of people in this
country. Compared with the moderate-cost
plan, the low-cost plan calls for smaller
amounts of most foods, especially milk, cheese
WINTER 1975
and ice cream; meat, poultry, and fish; fruit
and vegetables other than potatoes; and baker
products. It calls for larger amounts of cereal
flour, and bread. Users of the low-cost planar~
expected to select, most of the time, the lower
cost foods within food groups-ground beef
rather than steak and bread rather than fancy
rolls, for example. Plans for nutritious diets at
costs considerably lower than the low-cost plan
can be developed. One such plan is now being
developed by the USDA.
The moderate-cost plan not only includes
larger quantities of meat and vegetables and
fruit than the low-cost plan, but allows for
more frequent purchase of the higher priced
cuts of meat and out-of-season foods. This plan
allows for meals with more variety and less
home preparation than does the low-cost plan.
Greater discard of food beyond the normal dis­card
of bone and other inedible parts of food is
assumed in the moderate-cost than the low-cost
plan.
The liberal plan allows for a greater variety
of foods and for considerably 1more animal
products, fruits, and vegetables than the
moderate-cost plan. More expensive choices
within the groups account for much of the
greater cost of the liberal plan. Greater discard
of edible food is assumed in the liberal than in
the less costly plans.
Reasons for Revising the Food Plans
The maintenance of the USDA food
plans-their development, their interpretation
through publications for leaders and con­sumers,
and the periodic estimates of their
costs-is an ongoing project in the Consumer
and Food Economics Institute. The plans are
evaluated, and revised as required, when new
information on food consumption, food prices,
food composition, and nutritional needs
becomes available. The quantities of food
groups in the food plans were last revised in
1964.1 Nutritional goals based on the
1 FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW October 1964,
Agricultural Resear_ch Service, USDA. '
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Table 1. --Low-cost food plan: Amounts of food for a week 11
--
Family Milk, · Meat, Dry beans Dark-green, Citrus Other Other Fats, Sugar, Accea-member
cheese, poultry, Eggs and peas, deep-yellow fruit, Potatoes vegetables, Cereal Flour Bread bakery oils sweets sories
ice cream £/ fish~ nuts !!./ vegetables tomatoes fruit products 2.1
9.1 Lb No. Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb
Child:
7 months to
1 year---- 5.70 0.56 2.1 0.15 0.35 0.42 0.06 3.43 §I 0.71 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.05 O.l.B o.o6
1-2 years----- 3.57 1.26 3.6 .16 .23 1.01 .60 2.88 y -99 .27 .76 .33 .12 .36 .68
3-5 years----- 3-91 1.52 2.7 .25 .25 1.20 .85 2.95 .90 .30 .91 -57 .38 .71 1.02
6-8 years----- 4.74 2.03 2.9 -39 .31 1.58 1.10 3.67 1.11 .45 1.27 .84 .52 .90 1.43
9-11 years---- 5.46 2-57 3-9 .44 .38 2.13 1.41 4.81 1.24 .62 1.65 1.20 .61 1.15 1.89
Male:
12-14 years--- 5-74 2.98 4.0 . 56 .40 1.99 1.50 3.90 1.15 .67 1.88 1.25 -77 1.15 2.61
15-19 years--- 5-49 3.74 4.0 .34 -39 2.20 1.87 4.50 .90 -75 2.10 1.55 1.05 1.04 3.09
20-54 years--- 2.74 4.56 4.0 .33 .48 2.32 1.87 4.81 .93 -71 2.10 1.47 .91 .81 2.11
55 years and
over------- 2.61 3.63 4.0 .21 .61 2.38 1. 72 4.92 1.02 .62 1.73 1.23 ·11 -90 1.16
Female:
12-19 years--- 5-63 2-55 4.0 .24 .46 2.17 1.17 4.57 -75 .63 1.44 1.05 .53 .88 2.44
20-54 years--- 3.02 3.21 4.0 .19 -55 2.34 1.40 4.17 -71 -55 1.31 .94 .59 .72 2.13
55 years and
over------- 3.01 2.45 4.0 .15 .62 2.54 1.22 4.57 -97 .58 1.24 .86 .38 .64 1.11
Pregnant------ 5.25 3.68 4.0 .29 .67 2.80 1.65 4.99 -95 .-66 1.52 1.06 -55 .78 2.56
Nursing------- 5-25 4.16 4.0 .26 .66 2.99 1.67 5.33 .78 .61 1.55 1.16 .76 .91 2.70
--- ---- --
11 Amounts are for food as purchased or brought into the kitchen from garden or farm. Amounts allow for · a discard of about one-tenth of the
edible food as plate waste, spoilage, etc. Amounts of foods are shown to two decimal places to allow for greater accuracy, especially in estimating
rations for large groups of people and for long periods of time. For general use, amounts of food groups for a family may be rounded to the nearest
tenth or quarter of a pound.
£I Fluid milk and beverage made from dry or evaporated milk. Cheese and ice cream may replace some milk. Count as equivalent to a quart of fluid
milk: Natural or processed Cheddar-type cheese, 6 oz.; cottage cheese, 2-1/2 lbs.; ice cream, 1-1/2 quarts.
11 Bacon and salt pork should not exceed 1/3 pound for each 5 pounds of this group.
}!/ Weight in terms of dry beans and peas, shelled nuts, and peanut butter. Count 1 pound of canned dry beans--pork and beans, kidney beans, etc.-­as
.33 pound.
21 Includes coffee, tea, cocoa, punches, ades, soft drinks, leavenings, and seasonings. The use of iodized salt is recommended.
£/ Cereal fortified with iron is recommended.
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Table 2.--Moderate-cost food plan: Amounts of food for a week!/
Family Milk, Meat, Dry beans Dark-green, Citrus Other Other Fats, Sugar, Acces-member
cheese, poultry, Eggs an\1 peas, deep-yellow fruit, Potatoes vegetables, Cereal Flour Bread bakery oils sweets series
ice cream £I fish 'lJ nuts '1:_/ vegetables tomatoes fruit product's 2/
S1 Lb No. Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb
Cl:lild:
7 months to
1 year----- 6.46 o.8o 2.2 0.13 0.41 0.49 0.06 3.98 6/ 0.64 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.19 0.08
1-2 years----- 4.04 1.69 4.0 .15 .29 1.24 -59 3.44 6; 1.03 .26 .81 .33 .12 .28 -79
3-5 years----- 4.74 1.88 3-0 .22 .30 1.46 .85 3.51 - .74 .27 .82 -73 .41 .81 1.42
6-8 years----- 5-79 2.60 3-3 .34 .37 1.94 1.17 4.39 .84 -39 1.14 1.11 .56 1.03 1.97
9-ll years---- 6.68 3.31 4.0 .38 .45 2.61 1.40 5-76 1.03 .51 1.47 1.51 .66 1.31 2.63
Male:
12-14 years--- 7-02 3-77 4.0 .48 .48 2.44 1.52 4.66 .94 .56 1.69 1.54 .85 1.34 3.65
15-19 years--- 6.65 4.65 4.0 .29 .47 2.73 2.00 5.45 .80 .67 1.98, 1.82 l-05 1.15 4.41
20-54 years--- 3.38 5-73 4.0 .29 .59 2.92 1.94 5-93' .76 .65 1.97 1.65 .95 .96 2.95
55 years and
over------- 2.97 4.64 4.0 .19 .70 2.91 1.69 5.88 .89 .53 1.58 1.45 .87 1.05 1.50
Female:
12-19 years--- 6.22 3.32 4.0 .24 .53 2.62 1.21 5.38 .68 .56 1.34 1.22 .56 -97 3.36
20-54 years--- 3-35 4.12 4.0 .19 .62 2.84 1.35 4.94 .54 .49 1.28 1.08 .65 .81 2.89
55 years and
over------- 3-35 3.21 4.0 .14 -72 3.09 1.17 5. 50 .81 .52 1.20 .98 .45 -73 1.39
Pregnant------ 5.44 4.57 4.0 .25 .91 3. 52 1.60 6.13 -73 .83 1. 77 1.28 .46 .85 3.50
Nursing------- 5-31 5.01 4.0 .26 .91 3.76 1. 73 6.52 .74 .81' 1.84 1.42 .69 1.00 3-79
1/ Amounts are for food as purchased or brought into the kitchen from garden or farm. Amounts allow for a discard of about one-sixth of the
edible food as plate waste, spoilage, etc. Amounts of foods are shown to two decimal places to allow for greater accuracy, especially in estimating
rations for large groups of people and for long periods of time. For general use, amounts of food groups for a family may be rounded to the nearest
tenth or ~uarter of a pound.
£I Fluid milk and beverage made from dry or evaporated milk. Cheese and ice cream may replace some milk. Count as e~uivalent to a ~uart of fluid
milk: Natural or processed Cheddar-type cheese, 6 oz.; cottage cheese, 2-1/2 lbs.; ice cream, 1-1/2 ~uarts.
3/ Bacon and salt pork should not exceed 1/3 pound for each 5 pounds of this group.
~ Weight in terms of dry beans and peas, shelled nuts, and peanut butter. Count 1 pound of canned dry beans--pork and beans, kidney beans, etc.-­as
.33 pound.
21 Includes coffee, tea, ~ocoa, punches, ades, soft drinks, leavenings, and seasonings. The use of iodized salt is recommended.
Q/ Cereal fortified with iron is recommended.
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Table 3.--Liberal food plan: Amounts of food for a week ~/
Family Milk, Meat, Dry beans Dark-green, Citrus Other Other Fats, Sugar, Acces-member
cheese, poultry, Eggs and peas, deep-yellow fruit, Potatoes vegetables, Cereal Flour Bread bakery oils sweets series
ice cream £1 fish ]/ nuts }!/ vegetables tomatoes fruit products 2.1
~ Lb No. Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb Lb
Child:
7 months to
1 year----- 6.94 0.97 2.3 0.14 0.43 0.60 0.06 4.71 6! 0.64 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.20 0.09
1-2 years----- 4.26 2.07 4.0 .17 .31 1.50 .59 4.10 §.1 1.07 .28 .82 .35 .13 .27 .95
3-5 years----- 5.08 2.35 3.1 .23 .32 1. 77 .85 4.18 .76 .27 .79 .78 .45 .85 1. 74
6-8 years---- 6.25 3.18 3.4 .36 .40 2.35 1.18 5.21 .85 .39 1.08 1.23 .60 1.08 2.41
9-11 years---- 7.21 4.04 4.0 .39 .48 3.15 1.41 6.83 1.04 .51 1.39 1.67 .71 1.38 3.21
Male:
12-14 years--- 7·57 4.57 4.0 .so .51 2.94 1. 52 5.52 .95 .56 1.60 1.71 .92 1.40 4.47
15-19 years--- 7.18 5·59 4.0 .31 .so 3.29 2.01 6.45 .84 .69 1.92 2.05 1.07 1.20 5.36
20-54 years--- 3.64 6.83 4.0 .32 .62 3.51 1.95 6.99 .79 .66 1.91 :1..86 ·95 1.00 3.54
55 years and
over------- 3.24 5.54 4.0 .19 .76 3.52 1.68 6.97 .89 .54 1.49 1.57 .94 1.09 1.82
Female:
12-19 years--- 6.72 3.97 4.0 .25 .56 3.15 1.21 6.34 .71 .59 1.31 1.35 .54 .98 4.09
20-54 years--- 3.62 4.86 4.0 .20 .66 3.41 1.35 5.81 .56 .51 1.24 1.22 .66 .84 3.47
55 years and
over-------- 3.65 3.79 4.0 .15 .76 3.71 1.14 6.42 .74 .54 1.17 1.12 .48 ·77 1.66
Pregnant------ 5.91 5.43 4.0 .26 .96 4.22 1.57 7.17 .70 .87 1. 70 1.45 .46 .87 4.20
Nursing------- 5.76 5.97 4.0 .28 .97 4. 51 1. 72 7.66 .75 .84 1.76 1.58 .68 1.02 4.52
--~- ---- ------·- --
~/ Amounts are for food as purchased or brought into the kitchen from garden or farm. Amounts allow for a discard of about one-fourthof the
edible food as plate waste, spoilage, etc. Amounts of foods are shown to two decimal places to allow for greater accuracy, especially in estimating
rations for large groups of people and for long periods of time. For general use, amounts of food groups for a family may be rounded to the nearest
~ tenth or quarter of a pound.
> £1 Fluid milk and beverage made from dry or evaporated milk. Cheese and ice cream may replace some milk. Count as equivalent to a quart of fluid
es milk: Natural or processed Cheddar-type cheese, 6 oz.; cottage cheese, 2-l/2 lbs.; ice cream, 1-1/2 quarts.
~ 1/ Bacon and salt pork should not exceed 1/3 pound for each 5 pounds of this group.
~ }!/ Weight in terms of dry beans and peas, shelled nuts, and peanut butter. Count l pound of canned dry beans--pork and beans, kidney beans, etc.--
~ as . 33 pound.
0 2./ Includes coffee, tea, cocoa, punches, ades, soft drinks, leavenings, and seasonings. The use of iodized salt is recommended.
Z §) Cereal fortified -with iron is recommended.
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Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
released in 1964 by the National Academy of
Sciences-National Research Council (NAS­NRC)
and food consumption data from a
nationwide food consumption survey con­ducted
by USDA in 1955 were used in
developing these plans. Certain assumptions
with regard to selections and price levels of
foods within food groups in estimating costs of
the plans were revised slightly in 1967.
Revisions took into account food consumption
and food prices reported in the nati<::mwide
household food consumption survey conducted
by USDA in 1965-66. The food plans were
evaluated after the RDA were revised in 1968
and found to provide acceptable levels of
nutrients for which adequate reliable food
composition data were available. Therefore, no
changes in the plans were made.
New food plans were developed in 1974 for
several reasons:
1. In 1974 the NAS-NRC revised the RDA.2
Recommended amounts of some nutrients have
been changed and allowances for additional
nutrients have been designated since the plans
were revised in 1964.
2. The nutritive values of some foods have
changed since the plans were developed in
1964. For example, many ready-to-eat cereals
are now fortified with one-fourth or more of
the RDA for many nutrients; enriched bread
and flour, under regulations to go into effect in
1975, will contain more thiamin, riboflavin,
and niacin added than in 1964. New
information on the content of nutrients in
foods has become available.
3. Information on food eaten by men,
women, and children of different ages on a
nationwide basis has become available since
1964. USDA's 1965-66 survey of household
food consumption provided information for
the first time on the food intake of individuals
in the household.3 It also provides the most
2 Recommended Dietary Allowances 197 4, Eighth
Edition, National Academy of Sciences-National
Research Council, 1974.
3 Food and Nutrient Intake of Individuals in the
United States, Spring 1965, Household Food
Consumption Survey 1965-66, Report No. 11,
USDA-ARS, January 1972.
WINTER 1975
recent detailed information on the quantities
and money value of food used (purchased,
home-produced, or received as gift or pay) by
the total household.4
4. Shifts have occurred in food prices over
the past 10 years. Prices for most foods have
increased, but some have increased more than
others. Several foods that are generally used in
large amounts in the low-cost plan, such as dry
beans and potatoes, have increased markedly in
price. They are not, therefor~, as economical
relative to other foods as they were.
5. Computerized techniques have been
designed for developing food plans, as they
have for many other nutrition and food service
related problems.
6. The amounts of foods suggested in the
1964 food plans for some sex-age categories
were similar even though amounts of certain
nutrients recommended for those categories
were slightly different. To simplify the plans,
such categories are combined in the 1974
plans. The 1964 plans were for 18 sex-age
categories and pregnant and nursing women;
the 1974 plans are for 12 sex-age categories
and pregnant and nursing women.
7. Readymade bakery products were
included with flour, cereal, and bread as one of
the food groups for which amounts of foods
were specified in the 1964 plans. Bakery
products, more prominent in the marketplace
now than they were in 1964, are not as
economical as flour and cereal as sources of
most of the nutrients they provide. In the 1974
plans, flour, cereal, bread, and other bakery
products are included as four separate food
groups.
Data and Procedures Used in Revising
the Food Plans
The USDA's 1965-66 survey of household
food consumption was used as a basis for each
of the three food plans. Information from this
survey was used to estimate amounts of food
groups used to prepare meals and snacks for
4 Food Consumption of Households by Money Value
of Food and Quality of Diet, Household Food
Consumption Survey 1965-66, Report No. 17,
USDA-ARS, October 1972.
7
men, women, and children of different ages in
households with low, moderate, and liberal
food costs. These amounts of food groups are
the basis for the food consumption patterns
used in developing the 1974 plans.
Urban survey households used as a basis for
each of the three plans were selected by the
money value of food they used per person in a
week. Those with food valued at $7 to $9 per
person per week in 1965-66 were used for the
low-cost plan, at $9 to $12 per person for the
moderate-cost plan and at $12 to $16 for the
liberal plan. These groups of households fell in
approximately the second, third, and fourth
quartiles, respectively, on a distribution of
urban households by the money value of their
food per person.
Food patterns at all three cost levels had
nutritional shortcomings. They centered
around five nutrients: Calcium, iron, vitamin
B6 , magnesium, and fat.
• Calcium levels were low for teenage girls
and women and marginal for elderly men.
• Iron was low for infants, children 1 to 2
years, teenage girls, and women 20 to 54
years.
• Vitamin B6 was low for teenage girls and
women and marginal for elderly men.
• Magnesium was low for all persons over
12 years of age.
• Fat in the consumption pattern of older
teenage boys, men, and of women 20 to
54 years provided more than 40 percent
of the calories-the upper limit for fat
allowed in the plans.
To take into account these problems, the
food consumption patterns were altered using a
quadratic programing model, to provide the
plans. 5 For each of 12 sex-age categories, the
model selected the optimum plan-the amounts
of the 15 food groups that represented as little
change as was necessary to meet nutritional
goals at a given cost.6
Adjustments to the food consumption
patterns at all three levels of cost involved the
use of less meat, poultry, fish, and eggs, and
more dry beans, peas, nuts, and grain products.
Table 4 shows the amounts of food in food
consull\Ption patterns at three cost levels for
the family of four (total of patterns for a man
and a woman 20 to 54 years and children 6 to
8 and 9 to 11 years) and the amounts of food
in the food plans after adjustment.
The Nutritional Quality of the Food Plans
Nutritional goals for the plans are based on
the 1974 RDA. The NAS-NRC states that the
basis for the RDA is such that "even if a person
habitually consumes less than the
recommended amounts of some nutrients, his
diet is not necessarily inadequate for those
nutrients." (See footnote 2.) Thus, the actual
physiological requirement of most, but not
necessarily all, individuals for a nutrient may
be somewhat less than the RDA. Food plans
developed to meet the RDA would be expected
to provide generous amounts of nutrients for
most persons.
5 Model developed by Joseph L. Balintfy, University
of Massachusetts, in consultation with Brucy Gray,
Judy P. Chassy, and Betty Peterkin, Consumer and
Fooq Economics Institute, Agricultural Research
Service.
6 A more detailed description of the model is given
in the complete text of this paper. See contents page
for information on ordering.
Table 4. Comparison of the amounts of foods in consumption pattern derived from 1965"66
survey and 1974 food plans
Food group Unit Food consumption pattern I 197 4 food plan
Low- Moderate- Liberal Low- Moderate- Liberal
cost cost cost cost
Milk, cheese, ice cream ..... quart 15.8 18.6 20.0 16.0 19.2 20.7
Meat, poultry, fish ......... pound 16.1 18.2 20.8 12.4 15.8 18.9
Eggs .................... dozen 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.2 1.3 1.3
Dry beans and peas, nuts .... pound 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.3
Vegetables, fruit .......... pound 34.3 39.5 45.2 33.2 39.2 45.3
Grain products .... . ...... pound 14.2 14.6 15.2 17.1 16.4 16.9
8 FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
Allowances set in 1974 for protein and
ascorbic acid for all sex-age categories are
substantially lower than the 1964 allowances
used in developing the earlier plans. Also, 1974
allowances for calcium, vitamin A value,
riboflavin, and niacin for certain sex-age
categories are lower than those set in 1964. On
the other hand, thiamin allowances for all
sex-age categories and rron allowances for some
categories in 197 4 are higher than those in
1964. Of the additional nutrients for which
allowances have been set since 1964, vitamin
B6 , vitamin B1 2 , and magnesium were
considered in development of the plans.
When nutritive values for average selections
of foods within food groups are assumed, the
plans provide the nutritional goals for food
energy, protein, calcium, iron, vitamin A value,
thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid.
Fat provides no more than 40 percent of the
food energy.
The iron enrichment level for bread and
flour proposed by the Food and Drug
Administration in 1973, was assumed in the
development of the plans. If that level is not
adopted, the plans for some sex-age categories
will not provide the nutritional goal for iron.
However, all plans provide iron in excess of the
amount specified by the NAS-NRC as likely to
be furnished by a balanced and varied diet-
6 mg of iron/1000 kcal-when current enrich­ment
levels are assumed. Iron fortified cereal
is recommended for infants and children 1 to
2 years of age.
The vitamin B6 , vitamin B1 2 , and
magnesium content of many foods in the plans
is not known. Nevertheless, a rough estimate
was made of levels provided by the plans. Plans
furnish more than the RDA for vitamin B1 2
butl1ie<..not meet the RDA for vitamin B6 and
magnesium for several sex-age categories. Plans
that meet the nutritional goals for vitamin B6
and magnesium can be developed, but require
excessively large amounts of vegetables, fruits,
and cereals-two to three times as much as
consumed by some sex-age categories as
represented in the 1965-66 Household Food
Consumption Survey. Such distortion of food
consumption is not justified in view of the
limited food composition data available for
these two nutrients. Therefore, goals used in
developing the plans were adjusted to assure
WINTER 1975
that the plans provide 80 percent or more of
the RDA for vitamin B6 and magnesium.
Phosphorus levels of foods in the plans were
not calculated but are believed to be well above
the RDA. If iodized salt is used, the RDA for
iodine will be met.
Insufficient reliable information is available
on the content in foods of the four other
nutrients for which RDA are set-vitamin D,
vitamin E, folacin, and zinc-to make reliable
estimates of levels provided by the plans.
Allowances are not specified by the
NAS-NRC for some dietary factors of adequate
diets. An example is linoleic acid, an essential
fatty acid found in large concentrations in
many oils that come from plants. Notable
exceptions are olive oil and coconut oil.
Margarines, salad dressings, mayonnaise, and
cooking oils are usually made from one or
more "-egetable oils. Also, dietary fiber is
necessary for the normal functioning of the
intestinal tract. Good sources of fiber include
whole-grain cereals, fruits, vegetables, and
legumes, such as dried peas and beans.
Differences Between the 1974 and 1964 Plans
The 197 4 plans differ from those developed
in 1964 in several ways. Generally, all three
197 4 plans contain considerably less eggs,
potatoes, and dark-green and deep-yellow
vegetables than the 1964 plans. In the
development of the 1964 plans, amounts of
eggs and dark-green vegetables consumed were
increased greatly, especially to provide iron. In
the 1974 plans, cereals, flour, and bread with
iron added provide a larger share of iron.
Amounts of potatoes and dark-green and
deep-yellow vegetables in the 1974 plans,
although smaller than amounts in earlier plans,
are not smaller than those in the food
consumption patterns.
The 1974 low-cost plan for most sex-age
categories contains slightly more, and the
moderate-cost and liberal plans slightly less,
meat, poultry, and fish than the earlier plans.
However, the more expensive plans contain
appreciably more dry beans and peas and nuts.
Dry beans, cereal, bread, and flour groups are
important in all plans, especially as sources of
iron, vitamin B6 , and magnesium.
The amounts of selected food groups in the
1964 and 1974 plans at low cost and moderate
9
cost for a family of four (couple and children
6-8 and 9-11 years) are as follows:
Low-cost Moderate-cost
Unit plan plan
1964 1974 1964 1974
Milk, cheese,
ice cream ...... quart 16.5 16.0 17.5 19.2
Meat, poultry,
fish ........... pound 11.5 12.4 17.2 15.8
Eggs ......... _. dozen 2.1 1.2 2.4 1.3
Dry beans and
peas, nuts .... _ . pound 1.4 1.4 .9 1.2
Vegetables, fruit .. pound 40.8 33.3 43.5 39.2
Grain products* .. pound 12.5 11.5 11.5 10.3
*Weight in terms of cereal, flour, and the flour in bakery
products.
Procedures Used to Estimate Costs
To estimate the cost of the plans, ARS
scientists assume that families following the
plans select the kinds and amounts of foods in
each of the food groups that the survey
households at the three food cost levels
selected on the average. 7 For example, the
percentage of total meat used by the selected
survey families that is ground beef, beef chuck,
stewing beef, and so forth, is assumed in the
plan_ These average selections are believed to
provide the most reliable basis for food guides
such as these to be used nationwide.
The average prices paid for almost 2,000
different foods are used as a basis for
estimating the costs. These prices reflect
differences in 'container sizes, brands, quality
of food, and price levels of stores selected by
families who use food at different levels of
cost.
Costs of foods in the food plans are
estimated each month using the following
procedures:
1. The prices paid by survey households are
updated using the percentage change in prices
of a list of about 100 carefully defined foods
from the time of the survey to the 'month of
the estimate. Prices for these foods are
collected routinely by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics (BLS) from a representative sample
7 A list of the most commonly used foods in the
plans for a family of four is available on request from
the Consumer and Food Economics Institute.
10
of stores in selected cities across the country.
For example, if survey households selected as a
basis for the low-cost plan paid an average price
of 60 cents a pound for ground beef in
1965-66 and the price for ground beef
collected by BLS in December 1974 is 50
percent higher than the price collected by BLS
in 1965-66, a price of 90 cents (60¢ + 50% of
60 ¢) would be used for ground beef in figuring
the cost of the low-cost plan in December
197 4. Prices of certain other low-cost cuts of
beef that were used by survey families, but not
priced regularly by BLS, would be increased by
50 percent also. The percentage increase in the
BLS price for higher cost beef cuts are used to
update prices paid by survey households for
other cuts of beef.
2. The updated prices for foods in each
food group for each of the three plans are
weighted by the average amounts of foods used
by the survey households to derive a price per
unit-pound, quart, or dozen.
3. The prices per unit are then multiplied by
the number of units of the food groups in the
plans for the different sex-age categories
(tables 1, 2, and 3) to determine the cost of
foods from each food group.
4. Costs for the food groups are totaled.
These totals, rounded to the nearest 10 cents,
are released as the cost of food at home for a
week. Unrounded weekly costs are multiplied
by 4.333, then rounded to the nearest 10 cents
to estimate the cost for the month.
The October 1974 costs for the 1974 food
plans are shown in table 5; comparable costs
for the 1964 plans are shown in table 6. The
costs of the three 197 4 plans for many families
are similar to costs for the earlie~;1 plans.
However, 197 4 plans for preschool children
and teenagers account for a smaller part tM the
family food budget and plans for women 55
years and over and for men 20 years and over,
for a larger share, than the earlier plans.
Limitations of the Food Plans
The 197 4 plans were developed using the
most recent, complete, and reliable infor­mation
available; however, such information
has limitations. For example, current food
consumption in U.S. households may be some­what
different than indicated by the 1965-66
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
survey data. USDA's annual estimates of the
disappearance of food (national food supply)
and Supermarketing magazine's annual study
of consumer expenditures in gorcery stores
show no dramatic changes since 1965, but
these studies provide information only for the
country as a whole, not for households at
different economic levels.
Averages-average amounts of foods con­sumed
and average prices paid by groups of
selected households-were used in developing
the 1974 plans. More information on variation
and factors affecting variation in food
consumption and food prices among
households and variation in food patterns of
individuals in households of different sizes
would be useful. Such information may be
provided by a proposed nationwide study of
food consumption. With the expanded data
from the new study, new methods for
developing and costing the plans can be
explored.
Table 5. Cost of Food at Home, 1 Estimated for 1974 Food Plans at Three Cost Levels,
October 1974, U.S. average
Cost for 1 week Cost for 1 month
Sex-age groups2
Low-cost Moderate- Liberal Low-cost Moderate- Liberal
plan cost plan plan plan cost plan plan
FAMILIES
Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars
Family of 2:
20 to 54 years 2
. • . .••...•.• 26.90 33.60 40.30 116.60 145.50 174.40
55 years and over2 ......... 23.90 29.40 35.20 103.30 127.60 152.20
Family of 4:
Preschool children3
...•....• 38.10 47.10 56.50 164.60 204.30 244.60
School children3
•.......... 46.10 57 .30 68.70 199.30 248.50 297.50
INDIVIDUALS5
Child:
7 months to 1 year ........ . . 5.20 6.30 7.40 22.40 27.30 32.20
1 to 2 years ............... 6.20 7.50 9.00 26.70 32.70 38.90
3 to 5 years ............... 7.40 9.10 10.90 31.90 39.30 47.20
6 to 8 years ............... 9.60 11.90 14.30 41.50 51.60 61.80
9 to 11 years .............. 12.00 14.90 17.80 51.80 64.60 77.20
Male:
12 to 14 years ...... . ...... 12.80 15.90 19.00 55.30 68.70 82.20
15 to 19 years ............. 14.00 17.50 21.00 60.90 75.70 90.80
20 to 54 years ............. 13.60 17.00 20.50 58.80 73.80 88.70
p5 years and over .......... 11.90 14.70 17.70 51.60 63.90 76.60
Female:
Jl2 to 19 years . . . . . . . ...... 11.30 14.00 16.60 49.10 60.50 72.00
2Q to q4 years . . . . ......... 10.90 13.50 16.10 47.20 58.50 69.80
55 years and over ........ . . 9.80 12.00 14.30 42.30 52.10 61.80
Pregnant ................. 13.40 16.50 19.60 58.30 71.50 85.00
Nursing .................. 14.30 17.70 21.00 62.00 76.60 91.20
1 These estimates were computed from quantities of food plans presented in tables 1, 2, and 3. The costs of the
food plans were first estimated by using the average price per pound of each food group paid by urban survey
families at three selected food cost levels in 1965-66. These prices were adjusted to current levels by use 'Of Retail
Food Prices by Cities released periodically by the Bureau of Labor Statistic.
2 Ten percent added for family size adjustment.
3 Man and woman, 20·54 years; children, 1-2 and 3-5 years.
4 Man and woman, 20-54; child, 6-8 and boy 9-11 years.
5 The costs given are for individuals in 4-person families. For individuals in other size families, the following
adjustments are suggested: 1-person-add 20 percent; 2-person-add 10 percent; 3-percent--add 5 percent;
5-person--subtract 5 percent; 6-or-more-person--subtract 10 percent.
WINTER 1975 11
Composition data are incomplete for many
foods used in developing the food plans. More
complete composition data on a wider variety
of foods will be forthcoming from the Nutrient
Data Bank-a repository for food composition
data being developed in the Consumer and
Food Economics Institute. This additional
information will make possible a more
complete assessment of the nutritional quality
of foods in the plans.
Table 6. Cost of Food at Home, 1 Estimated for 1964 Food Plans at Three Cost Levels,
October 1974, U.S. average
Cost for 1 week Cost for 1 month
Sex-age groups2
Low-cost Moderate- Liberal Low-cost Moderate- Liberal
plan cost plan plan plan cost plan plan
Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars
FAMILIES
Family of 2:
20 to 35 years3
~ . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . 26.70 33.70 41.00 115.80 146.20 177.30
55 to 75 years3 . .... .. .. . ... 21.70 27.80 33.10 93.90 120.60 143.60
Family of 4 :
Preschool children4
..•...... 38.60 48.50 58.70 166.90 210.60 253.60
School children 5
• • ••••••••• 45.00 56.90 69.30 195.00 246.80 299.50
INDIVIDUALS6
Children, under 1 year ..... . . . 5.00 6.20 7.00 21.60 27.00 30.10
1 to 3 years ... . ...... . .... 6.50 8.00 9.60 28.00 34.90 41.50
3 to 6 years ........... .. .. 7.80 9.90 11.80 33.60 42.80 50.90
6 to 9 years . . . . ........ . .. 9.60 12.10 15.00 41.40 52.50 64.80
Girls, 9 to 12 years ........ . .. 10.80 13.80 16.10 46.90 59.90 69.60
12 to 15 years . . . .. .. ...... 11.90 15.30 18.30 51.60 66.40 79.50
15 to 20 years ..... . ....... 12.10 15.20 17.90 52.50 65.70 77.30
Boys, 9 to 12 years . . . .. .. . .. 11 .10 14.20 17.00 48.30 61.40 73.50
12 to 15 years . . ... .. ...... 13.10 17.00 20.10 56.60 73.70 87.00
15 to 20 years ............ . 15.10 19.00 22.70 65.30 82.40 98.30
Women, 20 to 35 years .. . ..... 11.20 14.10 16.90 48.50 61.30 73.00
35 to 55 years ...... .. . . ... 10.70 13.60 16.10 46.50 58.70 69.90
55 to 75 years ...... . ...... 9.00 11.60 13.70 39.10 50.10 59.30
7 5 years and over .... .. .. . . .. 8.20 10.30 12.40 35.40 44.50 53.90
Pregnant ........... ... .. .. ..... 13.10 16.30 19.20 56.90 70.80 83.10
Nursing . . ........... . .... 15.30 18.90 22.00 66.40 81.90 95.50
Men, 20-35 years .......... . ... 13.10 16.50 20.40 56.80 71.60 88.20
35 to 55 years .. . .... . .. . .. 12.10 15.30 18.50 52.60 66.30 80.20
55 to 75 years ... . ....... . . 10.70 13.70 16.40 46.30 59.50 71.20
7 5 years and over . .. . . ... . ... 10.00 13.20 15.80 43.20 57.00 68.30
1 These estimates were computed from quantities in food plans published in Family Economics Review, October
1964. The costs of the food plans were first estimated by using the average price per pound of each food group
paid by urban survey families at three selected income levels in 1965. These prices were adjusted to current levels
by use of Retail Food Prices by Cities released periodically by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
2 Age groups include the persons of the first age listed up to but not including those of the second age listed.
3Ten percent added for family size adjustment.
4 Man and woman , 20-35 years; children, 1-3 and 3-6 years.
5Man and woman, 20-35; child, 6-9 and boy 9-12 years.
6 The costs given are for individuals in 4-person families. For individuals in other size families, the following
adjustments are suggested : 1-person-add 20 percent; 2-person-add 10 percent; 3-person-add 5 percent;
5-person -subtract 5 percent; 6·or-more-person-subtract 10 percent.
12 FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
CLOTHING AND TEXTILES: SUPPLIES, PRICES, AND OUTLOOK FOR 1975
by Virginia Britton
Clothing Expenditures and Prices
Consumer spending on clothing and shoes
was running at an annual rate of about $351
per person in 197 4, acc:;ording to preliminary
figures for the first three quarters of the year.
This amount is about $17 higher than in 1973.
However, because of higher price levels in
1974, there appears to be a decrease of about 2
percent in terms of dollars of constant value
(table 1).
The price level for apparel and upkeep
averaged 6.9 percent higher during the first 9
months of 1974 than during the same period in
1973. The rise for clothing was, as usual, less
than for the all-items index of the Consumer
Price Index (table 2).
Among the three apparel subgroups, men's
and boys' clothing led the price advance with
an average increase of 7.1 percent during the
first 9 months of 1974 over the same period of
1973. Increases were slightly less than 6
percent for women's and girls' clothing and for
footwear.
Trade papers report consumer resistance to
price increases, with trading-down in price
lines, and demands for longer-lasting clothing
and textiles of good quality and conservative
style in the higher price lines. Women are
reported to be accessorizing costumes they
already own, using fancy printed sheets for
drapes and bedspreads, and buying cheaper
goods in items that children outgrow before
wearing them out. Manufacturers of items such
as shirts, pantyhose, and sheets are seeking to
maintain their price lines in spite of increased
costs to avoid pricing themselves out of the
market. Thread manufacturers are promoting
home sewing of garments, draperies, and
slipcovers as a way of cutting costs. Estimates
are that 45 million women make a total of 185
million garments a year at home plus some
home furnishings and spend over $3 billion a
year for fabrics, thread, trimmings, zippers,
notions, and patterns.
Retailers' efforts to cut costs and hold down
prices include leaner inventories of clothing,
with early markdowns of slow-moving goods;
the hiring of fewer salesclerks; promotions of
"irregular" items such as sheets and towels; and
WINTER 1975
more emphasis on private (retailer) brands.
Advertising stresses middle and lower price
items. Retailers are increasing their showing of
simpler items such as casual "leisure" suits for
men; slacks and jeans; warmer and more
practical clothing for women; and sneakers as
low-priced footwear for adults as well as
children. Retailers are importing items such as
leather shoes and handbags from Brazil;
sweaters, pantsuits, and flannel shirts from
Hong Kong; and garments and nonleather shoes
from Taiwan when they can be bought more
cheaply. However, U.S. imports of footwear
were lower during the first 9 months of 197 4
compared with the same period in 1973.
Imports of total footwear (in number of pairs)
were down 7 percent, while imports of leather
footwear were down about 14 percent. Imports
provide about 40 percent of our domestic
supply of total nonrubber footwear. According
to preliminary estimates, domestic production
of shoes during the first 8 months of 1974 was
10 percent lower than in the same period of
1973.
During 1975, price levels for apparel will
probably continue to rise, and consumers will
be bargain-hunting or trading-down. As
pressures on consumer income continue,
reduced amounts available for discretionary
spending may bring further reductions in the
average person's spending on clothing, at least
in terms of dollars of constant value.
Supplies of Raw Materials
U.S. mill use of total fibers per capita in
1974 is estimated to be about 6 percent lower
than in 1973. The preliminary estimate is a
total mill use of almost 56 pounds of fiber per
capita in the calendar year 197 4 including
about 16 pounds of cotton, 39 of manmade
fibers, and less than 1 pound of wool.
U.S. mills will probably have used about
11.8 billion pounds of fibers in calendar year
1974, down from the 12.5 billion pounds used
in 1973. Raw fibers moved from a "shortage"
situation in early 197 4 caused by the oil
embargo, to a "surplus" situation in the later
part of the year owing to declining demand.
13
Reduced consumer purchases of textile
products and reduced demand for items such as
carpets and drapery by the depressed housing
industry result in retailers cutting back their
orders which in turn causes cutbacks at the
fabric level and ultimately at the raw fiber
level. The slowdown in demand in the textile
industry started to become acute in August and
September 1974, and curtailment of
production was announced by various mills.
Substantial improvement is not generally
expected before late 1975. Mill managers are
also worried about possible shortages of natural
gas for their finishing plants during the winter
and are seeking deregulation of gas prices in
hopes of maintaining their supplies of gas.
Although U.S. cotton supplies are
moderately lower for the current crop year,
August 1, 1974, to July 31, 1975, than in the
previous year, declining use by U.S. mills and
for export will allow a sizable increase in
cotton stocks by August 1, 1975. U.S. mill use
during the current crop year is expected to be
at the lowest level since the late 1930's.
Table 1. Annual expenditures on clothing and shoes
Per capita Percent of
Years1
expenditures expenditures for Aggregate expenditures
personal consumption
1958
I
Current 1958
I
Current Billions of Billions of
dollars dollars dollars dollars 1958 dollars current dollars
1929 ............. 149 77 13.0 12.1 18.2 9.4
1930-40 ........... 122 51 11.8 10.7 15.6 6.5
1941-46 .... ....... 151 100 11.8 12.9 20.7 13.7
1947-61 ........... 144 140 9.0 9.4 23.5 22.9
1962-65 ........... 160 170 8.4 8.3 30.6 32.4
1966 ............. 185 204 8.7 8.6 36.4 40.3
1967 ............. 184 213 8.5 8.6 36.6 42.3
1968 .............. 188 231 8.3 8.6 37.8 46.3
1969 ............. 191 248 8.3 8.7 38.8 50.2
19.70 ............. 191 258 8.2 8.6 39.1 52.8
19712 ............ 197 277 8.2 8.6 40.8 57.3
1972 •••••••••• 0 •• 209 302 8.3 8.6 43.6 63.0
1973 ............. 220 334 8.4 8.7 46.3 70.2
19743 ............ 215 351 8.4 8.5 45.4 74.2
1 Earlier years are grouped on basis of similarity in level of per capita expenditures in 1958 dollars.
2 Revised data for 1971 to 1973.
3 Preliminary figures-average of estimates for first 3 quarters of 197 4 (i.e., seasonally adjusted quarterly totals
at annual rates).
Source: Department of Commerce.
Table 2. Annual percentage change in selected indexes of consumer prices
Index 1970 1971 1972 1973 19741
Consumer Price Index +5.9 +4.3 +3.3 +6.2 +10.8
Apparel and Upkeep I~d~~2• : : : : +4.1 +3.2 +2.1 +3.7 +6.9
Men's and boys' clothing ..... +4.2 +2.7 +1.3 +3.7 +7.1
Women's and girls' clothing . -. +3.8 +3.5 +2.4 +3.5 +5.8
Footwear ................... +5.3 +3.2 +2.8 +4.2 +5.6
1 Preliminary estimates-average for first 9 months of 1974 compared with average for first 9 months of 1973.
2 Also includes infants' wear, sewing materials, jewelry, and apparel upkeep services, for which separate indexes
are not available.
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
14 FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
Continued declines in cotton prices in recent
months from last season's highs primarily
reflect weaker demand for cotton, which more
than offsets the recent deterioration in crop
prospects. Weaker demand for cotton is
primarily due to lower mill use of all fibers, but
also to greater relative abundance of manmade
fibers than early in the year, and large imports
of cotton textiles. ·
Manmade fibers also moved from a shortage
to a surplus position during 197 4. Producers'
stocks of noncellulosics were reduced to an
"absolute low" by February 1974 when, as a
result of the oil embargo and declines in
petrochemical feeder stocks, production
cutbacks were as much as 35 percent by some
major producers. Inventories at the end of
September were markedly higher than earlier in
the year. U.S. producers' stocks of
noncellulosic fibers (largely polyesters and
acrylics) rose about 16 percent in September
197 4 as shipments declined from the previous
month. Shipment of cellulosics (rayon and
acetate) also declined in September with a
resulting increase in inventory. Following this
inventory buildup, a number of major
producers announced production cutbacks for
manmade fibers-many in October, and by
early November, cutbacks may have totaled
about 20 percent for the industry.· Cutbacks in
production were also announced in Europe and
the Orient, amovnting to perhaps 20 to 30
percent since June. The cutback in polyester
fibers for apparel was particularly sharp.
With cutbacks in orders, some price
reductions for manmade fibers may occur, or
at least there may be a slowdown on price
increases. Some building plans for new plants
may be slowed down. For the manmade fibers
industry, supply and demand for
petrochemicals are expected to be in balance in
1975, according to the Federal Energy
Administration (October 1974). Crude oil
requirements of the fiber industry amount to
only 1 percent of total national requirements,
according to trade reports.
U.S. wool production (apparel class) in 1974
is estimated at 8 percent below 1973. The U.S.
outlook for 1975 is for continued decline in
numbers of sheep and wool output. However,
world production of wool is expected to
WINTER 1975
increase in 1975 and prices may be somewhat
lower than present levels, especially if textile
mill activity continues to be sluggish. Recent
trade reports indicate greater use of all-wool
and wool blends for fall 197 5 in higher priced
garments such as men's tailored suits and
women's coats. But markets lost to manmade
fibers in recent years will be difficult to regain
despite limited availability and high prices of
petrochemicals. Textile mills will want
assurances of more stable supplies and prices
for wool.
U.S. production of cattle hides in 1974 was
estimated at about 8 percent above those of
1973, as more cattle went to market.
Furthermore, cattle marketings in 1975 are
expected to increase about 8 percent over
197 4. Net exports of cattle hides in the first 8
months of 197 4 were up some from the same
period of 1973. Increases went largely to Japan
since cattle marketings in Western Europe were
substantially higher than in 1973. It should be
kept in mind that shoes with nonleather uppers
constitute a large part of the U.S. supply of
shoes, and most shoes have nonleather soles.
Conclusion
Many of our suggestions made last year still
apply. As consumers we need to plan carefully
any necessary purchases of clothing and
textiles, shop wisely for appropriately durable
items, and repair and alter garments to extend
their use. Garments that we can no longer wear
should be given away. As we manage our
incomes, we direct the use of the nation's
resources for the items most important to us.
As a result of consumer resistance to rising
prices for clothing and textiles and retailers'
efforts to cut costs, we may find that stores
have smaller and less varied stocks than we are
accustomed to seeing. Retailers are likely to
concentrate on what they expect will be
best-selling items; the ultimate simplification
would be unisex, ums1ze, and unistyle
garments. Clearance sales come early. Major
shortages are unlikely. Because supplies of raw
materials are expected to be large in relation to
demand during the coming year and plant
capacity and labor are available, production
can be increased in response to any rise in
consumer purchases.
15
THE OUTLOOK FOR FOOD SUPPLIES, DEMAND, AND PRICES
by J. Dawson Ahalt
U.S. consumers can look to ample food
supplies in 1975, though perhaps slightly less
than the record per capita levels of 1974.
Despite prospects for further declines in
economic activity, and barring unforeseen
developments, food prices are expected to
advance on a broad front in the opening
months of 197 5. For the entire first half of
1975, food prices at retail may increase at rates
close to the average increase witnessed in 197 4.
Price developments in the first half of the year
will reflect increases in raw commodity prices
as well as further advances in costs of
processing, distributing, and marketing food.
Developments in 1974
Per capita food consumption hit a new high
in 197 4, while prices at grocery stores averaged
an estimated 15 percent higher, an increase just
slightly less than was experienced during the
turbulent year of 1973. Most of the gain in
food use was due to larger marketings of
livestock and products, reduced feeding of high
cost grain to animals, and a smaller volume of
exports.
Retail food prices in 1974 made their biggest
jump in the first quarter. Most of the increase
came from higher prices in grocery stores as
opposed to the cost of away from home eating,
a pattern that continued throughout the year.
However, in the first quarter, unlike in · the
balance of 1974, price pressure was due to
increases in a wide range of farm commodity
prices. Two significant developments are
noteworthy in the market behavior during the
last 9 months of the year. First, prices for
crop-based foods increased much more rapidly
than prices for animal products-a sharp
reversal of the 1973 pattern. Second, price
increases at retail came primarily from
widening farm-retail price spreads. For 1974 as
a whole, the spread between farm and retail
prices is estimated 21 percent higher than in
1973 and accounts for over four-fifths of the
total increase in the retail price of a market
basket of food. The wider spreads reflect
higher wage settlements and general
inflationary trends which have lifted virtually
all costs for food processing and marketing
firms.
16
Demand for Food
Consumer outlays for food outpaced income
growth for the second consecutive year in
197 4, boosting the percent of disposable
personal income spent for food to an estimated
16.8 percent. Unlike the 1973 performance,
however, when all of the increase was due to
higher food prices, part of last year's spending
put more food on consumers' tables.
For 1975, growth in economic activity is
expected to be flat through mid-year, and
after-tax real disposable incomes will probably
not change much from current levels. Thus,
consumers are likely to continue to devote a
larger portion of after-tax income to outlays
for food as well as fuel. Increases in food
outlays for the year ahead, however, could be
tempered as consumers adjust their diets away
from pork, poultry, and dairy products which
will be in shorter supply. Outlays on clothing,
and automobiles are likely to account for a
declining portion of disposable income as they
did in 1974.
The impact of the Family Food Programs on
the demand for food has stabilized in the past
few years. The rapid growth in the Food Stamp
Program has about offset the phasing out of
direct family food distribution. For 1975, the
value of food stamps will continue to be
adjusted in response to changes in the food at
home components of the Consumer Price
Index. Moreover, prospects for further
increases in unemployment suggest that
participation in the Food Stamp Program will
rise in the year ahead. But the effects of these
factors on the demand for food will probably
be about neutralized by an increase in
purchasing requirements. This latter action
reflects efforts to hold down Federal outlays.
Changes Are in the Wind
Attempts to forecast food supplies and
prices for 1975 carry the usual uncertainties
that plague analysts. The food picture in 1975
will be framed by a number of dramatic
economic developments, some of which have
been in the making for several years. The
influences of these events will have varying
effects on domestic and world markets and will
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
be felt next year and beyond. The following
outlines some of the most important
developments that will extend in 1975:
1. Declines in world grain crops in 1972 and
1974, with the major source of the drop
in 1974 being the drought-damaged U.S.
feed crops.
2. Reduced grain stock levels throughout
the world have made prices more volatile,
enhanced the vulnerability of markets to
future weather developments, and raised
the risk and uncertainty for both
producers and consumers.
3. The beginning of a liquidation phase in
the cattle cycle. This development
boosted per capita beef supplies to record
levels in 1974 and will continue to keep
U.S. red meat supplies at high levels
throughout 1975, despite prospects for
further losses to producers.
4. Further declines in worldwide economic
activity and prospects for some further
deterioration in U.S. consumer sentiment
until late 1975.
5. Continued advances in energy and
packaging costs, the likelihood of
escalated wage settlements, and rising
transportation rates all portend a
continuation of wider than normal
farm-retail price spreads.
The net effect of the above developments
will add to food costs in the coming year. The
longer run implications of feed-livestock
developments signal some potential changes in
U.S. food production and consumption
patterns. With grain prices the highest in
relation to livestock and livestock product
prices in a decade, producers are cutting back
on the use of grain for feed while some are
paring down the size of their livestock
enterprises. This suggests that U.S.
consumption patterns, which in post World
War II period have shown dramatic growth in
the use of animal products, will likely tilt
somewhat in the future in favor of increased
direct consumption of crop products. Some
indications of this change are already evident in
the growing use of vegetable oils and increased
consumption . of processed fruits and
vegetables.
WINTER 1975
A look at trends in food use shows per
capita consumption of animal products peaked
in 1971, while use of crop products has grown
almost continuously since the early 1960's.
This shift is likely to become more pronounced
in the future primarily as a result of changes in
market forces. As inflation and reduced
economic activity have eroded buying power,
consumers have adjusted their budgets toward
less expensive foods which include crop
products. This adjustment has come about at a
time when grains and oilseeds as well as many
other crop products have been in tight supply.
Even though prices for foods based on these
products have risen accordingly, they are
usually less expensive than most animal
product foods.
Prospective Food Supplies and Prices
The effects of the drought-damaged 1974
feed crops are already being felt in the
marketplace. However, since the near-term
:r:esponse to high feed costs varies by type of
enterprise, the effects are not always easily
discernible. In the latter part of 1974, cattle
marketings were stepped up, sow slaughter ran
larger than normal, and hog farrowings and
poultry output were cut back.
Even with increased meat slaughter rates in
197 4, the large cattle herd will support a
substantial expansion in beef production in
197 5 without curtailing growth in cattle
numbers. In the first half of 1975, beef
production is estimated to run 5 to 7 percent
above the large volume of a year earlier.
However, cattle prices are likely to recover
some from current levels as pork and poultry
output is reduced. Retail prices for beef and
meats in general could edge slightly higher in
coming months. Pork supplies in the first half
of 1975 will be sharply curtailed. Broiler
production typically shows the quickest
response to changes in feed costs. Supplies in
the first half of 1975 could lag year earlier
output by 12 to 15 percent. Supply reductions
for pork and broilers indicate rising prices at all
market levels although large cold storage stocks
and production increases for beef will have a
partial buffering effect. Production of eggs and
milk is also likely to be reined back by higher
feed costs. However, stocks of manufactured
17
dairy products are large and will dampen some
of the upward movement in prices for dairy
items.
On balance, per capita supplies of total
animal foods in the first half of 197 5 are
expected to drift lower by more than the
normal seasonal decline. If producers carry out
their intentions, per capita market supplies by
the Spring quarter especially could be down
from the 1974 pace even though beef supplies
will be large. This will be in sharp contrast to
the expansion in market supplies in 1974, and
suggests that even though consumer demand is
expected to be weak, prices for the livestock
product foods could advance from present
levels.
Among the crop foods, skyrocketing prices
for raw sugar have put upward pressure on
prices for sugar products, beverages, and high
sugar content food products. In the fats and
oils complex, increased use of margarine and
cooking and salad oils in the face of reduced
U.S. oilseed crops has contributed to
substantial increases in prices of vegetable oils.
However, the biggest increases in retail prices
for these products are probably behind us.
Prices for fresh vegetables are expected to rise
seasonally in the first half of 1975. Prices for
processed fruits and vegetables are expected to
increase reflecting sharp increases in raw
commodity costs, especially for vegetables, and
much higher costs for packaging materials. On
the other hand, prices for fresh fruits are
expected to demonstrate modest price behavior
due primarily to the record 8 percent larger
expected citrus crop. The demand for cereal
and bakery products increased in 197 4 at a
time when wheat and flour supplies were
extremely tight. This relationship is expected
to continue through the first half of 1975
although price increases at retail are expected
to be relatively modest. Rice supplies were
large last season suggesting that prices will
advance only slightly and per capita
consumption may rise again this year.
For the first half of 1975, barring a sharp
collapse in domestic and world demand, retail
grocery store prices could advance at rates
approaching 3 to 4 percent per quarter (a
15-percent annual rate). In contrast to the large
increases in farm-retail spreads in 197 4, for the
first half of 1975 processing and marketing
costs are expected to increase more in line with
overall price trends. Even so, farm-retail
spreads are likely to be wider than in most
other recent years.
Prices for food eaten away from home are
likely to rise less rapidly in the first half of
1975. This slower rate of increase for food
eaten away from home which also occurred in
1974 reflects the erosion in consumers' real
incomes.
For the second half of 1975 supply-demand
prospects are highly uncertain. If weather
cooperates in the United States and around the
world and if economic activity weakens more
than expected, production increases relative to
demand growth could be quite large leading to
significant slowing in price increases.
Conversely, with world grain stocks at
precariously low levels, another year of poor
growing conditions at a time when world food
needs are expanding could ignite a rapid pace
of food price advances throughout 1975.
ANIMAL CARE, PLANT CARE, AND FOOD CARE­FOR
CONSUMER PROTECTION
by Sara Beck
The Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service (APHIS) was established by the
Secretary of Agriculture on April 2, 1972. The
Agency conducts the Department's regulatory
and control programs to (1) protect the
wholesomeness of meat and poultry products
18
for human consumption and (2) protect and
improve animal and plant health for the benefit
of man and his environment. In cooperation
with State governments, APHIS administers
Federal laws and regulations to achieve these
objectives.
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
Animal Care
Successful nationwide campaigns have been
conducted to eradicate diseases and pests that
seriously threaten animal health. One such
disease is brucellosis, found in cattle, swine,
and other livestock. It can be transmitted to
man in the form of undulant fever and causes
persistent symptoms resembling influenza.
Cattle losses from the disease are manifested by
premature calves, impaired reproductive
capacity, and reduced milk production.
Another disease is exotic Newcastle disease in
poultry. It is a foreign virus disease that is
highly fatal to poultry and other birds but
harmless to consumers. It can seriously lower
production of poultry meat and eggs. An
outbreak in southern California in November
1971 was eradicated in July 1974.
APHIS regulates the import-export move­ment
of animals to prevent or reduce the
spread of animal diseases and pests between
countries. The staff provides for inspection and
quarantine of animals and poultry to be
brought into the United States, and regulates
the movement of animals leaving the United
States to make sure they meet requirements of
the importing country.
Under the Animal Welfare Act and the Horse
Protection Act, APHIS takes action to promote
humane standards in the handling, care,
treatment, and transport of animals.
Plant Care
APHIS protects crops, trees, and other
plants from damage by pests and disease;
develops pest management plans to help
producers reduce pest damage and to prevent
environmental pollution; and keeps out foreign
pests and diseases.
APHIS conducts organized campaigns
against domestic plant pests and diseases. One
campaign is being developed against the boll
weevil. Boll weevil control costs cotton
producers about $70 million a year. At least 35
percent of all agricultural pesticides are used
against this one cotton pest. If the boll weevil
could be eradicated, the reduction in costs and
environmental contamination would be well
worth the effort.
The APHIS campaign against the gypsy
moth, conducted in cooperation with other
agencies of the Department, is to prevent
WINTER 1975
long-range spread of the pest and to wipe out
isolated infestations. Gypsy moth is a serious
pest of trees, particularly hard woods and
evergreens, and is a real threat to timber
resources, recreation and wildlife areas and to
aesthetic values of our parks, lawns, ~nd city
streets. The moths have defoliated as many as 2
million acres of timber and woodland in one
year. Repeated defoliation can kill trees.
The cereal leaf beetle is a serious pest of
grain crops. The beetles feed on leaves, chewing
out long strips between the veins. This gives
plants a yellowish-white frosted appearance. In
parts of Europe, beetle damage has been so
severe that crops had to be plowed under. So
far, the cereal leaf beetle has not spread into
major grain producing areas in the United
States. APHIS' objective is to prevent that
from happening.
Foods, plants, and animal products from
foreign countries are inspected at borders and
ports of entry to prevent the entry of foreign
insects and diseases that could cause severe
damage to our crops, forests, gardens, and
livestock. Inspectors look for pests and diseases
before they release restricted items to returning
travelers. Materials that require extensive
inspection, testing, or treatment may be held
until they can be certified free of pests. Some
items may be refused entry. Articles that
contain pests or diseases and those determined
to be high-pest risk are destroyed.
One plant, a piece of sausage, or a pet bird
could be the means of bringing in destructive
pests and disease. For example, 56 destructive
Mediterranean fruit flies were discovered in
figs, pears, and peaches in passenger baggage on
one single international flight. "Medflies"
invaded the United States on four earlier
occasions and were eradicated at a total cost of
over $20 million. If the Medfly should become
established in this country, it could seriously
threaten-or even destroy-our citrus industry.
Food Care
Food care actually begins with animal and
plant care. APHIS people work every hour of
the day, every day of the week, in some part of
the world, to help keep U.S. animals and plants
healthy-so that food supplies for the
American people can be plentiful and free from
damage by pests or disease.
19
Food inspection. Under Federal Meat and
Poultry Inspection, APHIS personnel inspect
meat and poultry sold in interstate or foreign
trade-from the slaughter of animals and birds
through the handling and processing of
products-to make sure these products are safe,
wholesome, and accurately labeled. This
inspection covers many areas:
• Processing plants must meet certain
sanitation and equipment requirements.
• Animals and birds must be inspected before
slaughter to make sure they're healthy.
• Each and every carcass, organ, and part must
be inspected after slaughter and passed as a
wholesome product or condemned as unfit
for human food.
• All meat and poultry and other ingredients
in processed products must be checked. All
processing procedures and techniques must
be under the supervision of an inspector.
Procedures must insure the destruction of
trichinae in ready-to-eat pork products.
• Containers, wrappings, netting, cords, and
other materials that come in contact with
the meat and poultry products must be
inspected for safety and sanitation.
• Foreign countries exporting products to the
United States must certify that they have an
inspection program comparable to ours.
USDA inspectors travel in foreign countries
and review their programs. A statistical
sampling is taken on the products at our
port ofentry. If this sampling shows that the
products are not wholesome, they are either
returned to the country of origin or disposed
of under the supervision of an inspector.
• Inspection laboratories are maintained across
the country to provide inspectors in packing
plants with supplemental scientific data to
aid them in making decisions concerning
questionable meat and poultry products.
• In addition to "inplant" inspectors who
make sure that the final product was
prepared from healthy animals and under
sanitary conditions, a staff checks
compliance with meat and poultry
inspection laws.
Regulation of labeling and packaging. Labels
of meat and poultry products sold interstate or
20
in foreign trade are required to be truthful and
accurate and must be approved by USDA
before they can be used. The label, container,
formula, method of manufacture, and sample
of the product are submitted to the USDA and
each part of the label is checked for accuracy;
home economists check the contents to make
sure they conform to the label and follow the
cooking instructions on the label to be sure
they are accurate.
All meat and poultry products must meet
minimum Federal standards set up for the
specific product. To develop and maintain
adequate standards, the USDA staff uses a
variety of techniques. For example, in the
USDA test kitchens home economists examine
similar products processed by various
manufacturers to learn what current practices
are. They compile information from
restaurants about professional ways to prepare
foods. They read cookbooks and other
references to determine the standard definition
of a product. Also, taste panels make sure
products meet claims and expectations, and
technical lab tests establish the level of fat or
moisture in a product.
Consumer feedback is especially important
in maintaining adequate standards. Between
the time a proposed standard leaves the USDA
test kitchens and the time it is incorporated
into formal regulations, it is published in the
Federal Register so that anyone who wishes
can comment on it. Since regulations are
principally designed to protect the consumer,
consumer comments may decide whether or
not a standard is adopted and what it will
require. Proposed standards are frequently
printed in the newspaper and broadcast over
radio and television.
Following are several examples of recent
changes in labeling and packaging regulations
approved by the Department.
Effective December 10, 1975, is a change in
regulations that will require lids of glass jars
containing meat and poultry products to be
designed to prevent the possibility of any dirt
or insects entering the jar. This involves merely
a simple change in lid design.
Effective January 1974 was a regulation that
windowed packages of sliced bacon must show
at least 70 percent of the length of a
representative strip of bacon, and the window
must be at least Ph inches wide. Also,
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
information on the ingredients used in curing
must be clearly stated on the label.
Effective January 1974 hot dogs and other
cooked sausages, such as bologna and
knockwurst, must be labeled in one of three
ways: (1) If the product is made only from
skeletal muscle meat plus the normal
seasonings and curing agents, it may be labeled
as hot dogs, franks, or wieners. If it's made
from only one species, the label will say
something like "beef franks." (2) This category
will allow the use of hearts, tripe, and other
edible byproducts along with the skeletal meat.
Since these byproducts are sometimes called
"variety meats," sausages including these parts
must be labeled "franks with byproducts or
variety meats." ( 3) This category includes
products made in either of the other two ways
plus binder materials such as nonfat dry milk
and soy flour. Their labels must prominently
show these ingredients, using names like "beef
franks, soy flour added" or "hot dogs with
by products, nonfat dry milk added." The
binders cannot exceed 31/z percent of total
content. (Remember that all ingredients will
continue to be listed in decreasing order-the
item making up most of the product is listed
first. The fat content of hot dogs cannot
exceed 30 percent.)
APHIS has issued guidelines for a voluntary
nutrition labeling program for meat and
poultry products. If a processor wishes to
participate in the program, he would conform
to regulations governing the type and content
of nutrition information and its placement on
·the consumer package. If the processor makes a
nutrition claim for his product or if nutrients
are added to the product, then he will be
required to meet nutrition labeling regulations.
Nutrition information would be titled,
"Nutrition Information Per Serving." The
serving size, the number of servings in the
package, the calories, protein, carbohydrate,
and fat content per serving would appear under
this heading. Also listed would be the
"Percentage of U.S. Recommended Daily
Allowances" per serving for protein, vitamin A,
vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, calcium,
and iron. When the processor submits nutrition
labels to APHIS for approval, he must also
submit a plan for an inplant quality control
program to make sure the product meets the
nutritional values stated on the label.
On December 8, 1974, guidelines became
effective for voluntary "open dating" on labels
of meat and poultry products. Any calendar
date used on meat or poultry products
processed under Federal inspection will have to
be identified in terms of a "packing date" or
"use before date" or "sell by date." These
dates may be further qualified by phrases such
as "for maximum freshness," or similar terms.
The new regulation, however, does not apply
to fresh meats that are cut up and packaged in
the individual retail store.
CHILDREN OF WORKING MOTHERS, MARCH 1974
Since 1970, the total number of children in
families has dropped by 2.2 million, while the
number of children with working mothers has
risen by 1.2 million. Almost all the increase in
the total number of children with working
mothers occurred in families headed by
women, while the drop in total number of
children occurred exclusively in husband-wife
families. Contributing to these opposing trends
are the continuing long-term -rise in the labor
WINTER 1975
force participation of married women, both
with and without children; the declining birth
rate; and an increase in the number of families
headed by women, largely due to the escalating
divorce rate.
Source: Waldman, Elizabeth, Children of Working
Mothers, March 1974. MONTHLY LABOR REVIEW,
pp. 64-67, January 1975.
21
SOME NEW USDA PUBLICATIONS
(Please give your ZIP code in your return address when you order these)
The following are for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402:
• WOOD HANDBOOK: WOOD AS AN ENGINEERING MATERIAL. AH 72. Revised
August 197 4. $7.85 (hardback).
• FAMILY FARE-A GUIDE TO GOOD NUTRITION. G 1. Revised July 1974.$1.00.
• HOW TO MAKE JELLIES, JAMS, AND PRESERVES AT HOME. G 56. Revised
September 1974. 40 cents.
• SELECTING SHRUBS FOR SHADY AREAS. G 142. Revised September 1974. 30 cents.
• DWARF FRUIT TREES. L 407. Revised June 1974. 25 cents.
• SHOPPER'S GUIDE. 1974 Yearbook of Agriculture. $5.70 (hardback).
• HOW TO BUY FOOD-A FOUR-PART CONSUMER EDUCATION PACKAGE.
1. How to Buy Food-Lesson Aids for Teachers. AH 443. $1.40,
2. How to Buy Food Publications Packet. $4.45 (For information on purchasing
individually, write USDA, AMS Information, Washington, D.C. 20250)
3. Como Comprar Los Comestibles-How to Buy Food. PA 976. 80 cents.
4. U.S. Grades to Help you Choose. (set of 10 color posters) $3.75.
Single copies of the following are available free from the Office of Communication, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250:
• FATS IN FOOD AND DIET. AB 361. Revised November 1974.
• CALORIES AND WEIGHT-THE USDA POCKET GUIDE. AB 364. June 1974.
• THE REAL FACTS ABOUT FOOD. (Unnumbered) July 1974.
NEW LEGISLATION
• Fair Credit Billing Act. Gives consumers
greater protection against inaccurate and
unfair credit billing and credit card practices.
(Public Law 93-495, Title III, October 28,
1974)
• Ceiling on deposit insurance- Increases
ceiling from $20,000 to $40,000 in institu­tions
covered by the Federal Deposit
Insurance Corporation, the Federal Savings
and Loan Insurance Corporation, and credit
unions covered under the Federal Credit
Union Act. (Public Law 93-495 Title I,
October 28, 1974)
• Equal Credit Opportunity Act. Requires that
financial institutions and other firms
engaged in the extension of credit make that
credit equally available to all credit-worthy
22
customers without regard to sex or marital
status. (Public Law 93-495, Title V,
October 28, 1974)
• Employee Retirement Income Security Act
of 1974. Provides protection to participants
in private pension plans and in employee
benefit plans (such as health insurance,
vacation benefits, training programs, and
legal services). (Public Law 93-406,
September 2, 1974)
• Housing and Community Development Act
of 1974. Affects community development,
assisted housing, mortgage credit assistance,
rural housing, mobile home construction and
safety standards, and consumer home
mortgage assistance. (Public Law 93-383,
August 22, 1974)
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW
CONSUMER PRICES
Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers
(1967 = 100)
Group Oct. 1974 Sept. 1974 Aug. 1974 Oct. 1973
All items ......... ......... ... .
Food ............... : ...... .
Food at home .............. .
Food away from home ....... .
Housing .................... .
Shelter ........ . .......... .
Rent ................... .
Homeownership .......... .
Fuel and utilities ........... .
Fuel oil and coal .......... .
Gas and electricity ......... .
Household furnishings and
operation ................ .
Apparel and upkeep .......... .
Men's and boys' ............ .
Women's and girls' .......... .
Footwear .. . ..... ......... .
Transportation .............. .
Private ................... .
Public .. .. .... .. .......... .
Health and recreation ......... .
Medical care ............... .
Personal care . . . . . . . . ...... .
Reading and recreation ....... .
Other goods and services ..... .
153.0
166.1
166.5
164.7
156.7
159.9
132.2
170.1
155.2
225.5
151.5
149.0
141.1
141.4
140.2
141.7
142.9
142.3
148.8
145.2
156.3
143.0
137.8
141.4
Source : U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
151.7
165.0
165.5
163.1
154.9
158.1
131.4
167.9
154.0
222.7
150.2
146.6
139.9
140.0
138.8
141.1
142.2
141.4
148.8
144.0
155.2
141.2
137.0
140.4
149.9
162.8
163.0
161.9
152.8
156.1
130.9
165.4
152.6
220.9
148.5
143.9
138.1
138.4
136.6
139.9
141.3
140.5
148.7
142.6
153.7
139.3
135.2
139.4
Index of Prices Paid by Farmers for Family Living Items
(1967 = 100)
Item Nov. Oct. Sept. Aug. July
1974 1974 1974 1974 1974
All items ..... ............... 171 167 166 164 161
Food and tobacco •••••••••• 0 -- --- 167 --- --·-
Clothing •••• 0 • ••• 0 0. 0. 0 0 •• -- --- 176 --- ---
Household operation ......... --- --- 160 --- ---
Household furnishings ... .... . --- --- 146 -- ---
Building materials, house ...... --- --- 181 --- ---
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service.
DR. BERNICE WATT RETIRES
June
1974
160
161
167
152
138
177
136.6
148.4
148.7
147.7
138.1
144.7
125.9
151.5
128.6
141.1
127.4
126.7
129.6
128.3
131.4
132.0
125.0
122.9
145.2
132.1
140.6
127.3
127.2
130.3
Nov.
1973
146
---
---
---
---
---
Dr. Bernice Watt, Group Leader of the
Nutrient Data Research Center of the Con­sumer
and Food Economics Institute, retired
on December 31, 1974, after 33 years with the
U.S. Department of Agriculture. Dr. Watt
received the Department's Distinguished
Service Award in June 197 4 for her work on
food composition.
WINTER 1975 23
CONTENTS
Page
USDA Family Food Plans, 1974 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Betty Peterkin
Clothing and Textiles: Supplies, Prices, and Outlook for 197 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Virginia Britton
The Outlook for Food Supplies, Demand, and Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
J. Dawson A halt
Animal Care, Plant Care, and Food Care-for Consumer Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Sara Beck
Children of Working Mothers, March 1974... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
New Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Dr. Bernice Watt Retires ........................................... · · . · · · · · · 23
Regular Features
Some New USDA Publications 22
Cost of Food at Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Consumer Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
24
This issue is made up, for the most part, of condensations of papers prepared
for the National Agricultural Outlook Conference, held in Washington, D.C.,
December 9-12, 1974. For a free copy of the complete text, send your
request-giving title and author of the Article-to the Consumer and Food
Economics Institute, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Federal Building, Hyattsville, MD 20782. Please give your ZIP
code with your return address.
Winter issue-February 1975
FAMILY ECONOMICS REVIEW