History pasted on the wall

              The Historic
Dimension Series
A student publication series by the UNCG Department of Interior Architecture
History Pasted on the Wall
by Lechelle Vernon-Yates 		 Spring 2006
Like paint, wallpaper
in older homes seems
to fascinate the novice
and the experienced
house detective alike.
When people enter a home and see the
decorative finish, they immediately want to
know, “Is it original? How old is it? What
story does it tell about the house?” Wallpa-per
gives people a glimpse into the fashion
trends of a certain period of time, as well as
a glimpse into the status and personal tastes
of previous occupants. Surviving examples
of historic interiors are rare because they
are so susceptible to changing consumer
tastes as well as damage and decay. So it is
important to preserve this decorative finish
when it is found. This brief provides one
concise document that details the history of
wallpaper; outlines how to identify the age
of wallpaper; provides tips on the preser-vation,
restoration, and reconstruction of
wallpaper; as well as explains how to best
display the historical fabric if only a sliver of
the legacy is left.
History of wallpaper
The Chinese are generally thought to be the
inventors of wallpaper. As early as 200 A.D.,
they often lined their walls with high quality
handmade paper that featured crude deco-rations.
By the eighth century, papermaking
had spread to the Middle East, and by 1100,
Europeans were making paper. The oldest
surviving European wallpaper was found in
England covering the beams of the Dining
Hall at Christ’s College in Cambridge. It is
thought to date from 1509.
These early European papers were hand-made
from reconstituted rags. Small sheets
were pasted together to create a length of
paper from floor to ceiling. Carved wood
blocks placed by hand created the design
(fig. 2). Like rubber stamps used in crafts
today, the carved wood block was first
stamped onto a pad of distemper or oil-based
paint, and then stamped onto the pa-per
(fig. 3). Sometimes, stencils were used
to create the design. This type of production
became the norm for wallpapers until indus-trialization
in the mid-nineteenth century.
Even though American newspaper ads
featuring wallpaper appear as early as 1700,
European settlers rarely papered their walls.
When it was used, it was in public buildings
of great importance such as the Governor’s
Palace at Williamsburg. By 1760 though,
wallpaper imported from Britain started
appearing in the homes of the wealthy, and
after the Revolutionary War, people began
producing wallpaper stateside (fig. 4). By
1789, Boston boasted enough wallpaper
makers that they participated as a group in a
parade honoring George Washington’s visit
to the city.
The American incursion into the market
caused wallpaper prices to drop and its
popularity to rise. Written accounts show
women from all walks of life and class were
choosing it as decoration for their homes.
In her book, At Home: The American Fam-ily
1775-1870, Elizabeth Donaghy Garrett
recounts how Harriet Silliman’s daughters
wrote her letters with instructions about
the type of paper and border she should
choose for her urban New Haven home in
the 1820s. As these letters were passing back
and forth, a rural housewife wrote to her
Wallpaper
gives people
a glimpse
into the
fashion
trends of a
certain
period of
time, as well
as a glimpse
into the
status and
personal
tastes of
previous
occupants.
UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 2
Fig. 2: This carved woodblock is used to print designs on wallpaper.
Fig. 3: Like original wallpaper makers, this artist places a woodblock on paper to create the wallpaper design.
sister to say she had papered her walls and put down her new carpet.
Wallpaper’s popularity and ubiquity continued as machines took the place of human hands in 1849 with the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. The hand-carved wooden block was replaced by a wooden cylinder rolling over a now continuous sheet of seamless paper. As many as sixteen of the rollers could be mounted on a machine, so as many as 16 colors could be printed on paper. This advent caused the price of wallpaper to plummet and papered walls became the preferred method for decorating walls for all classes. Andrew Jack­son Downing wrote in his 1850 book, The Architecture of Country Homes, “We confess a strong partiality for the use of paperhangings for covering the walls of cottag­es…” because of the architectural effect paper could give to a plain wall.
Even with mechanization though, some manufacturers still produced hand-blocked wallpaper. The founding father of the Arts and Crafts Movement, William Morris, issued his first wallpaper using this old method in 1864.
By the 1890s, however, wallpaper fell out of favor with decorators and tastemakers, because it was hard to clean and, therefore, unsanitary. This prompted some manu­facturers to develop waterproof papers called sanitaries. These papers were printed with oil-based pigments so people could lightly wash them. Manufacturers recom­mended these papers for the kitchen, the dining room and the bathroom. Other manufacturers varnished wall­papers printed with distemper pigments so they, too, could be washed.
Another development during this period was paper for specific rooms such as nurseries. Manufacturers bor­rowed scenes and characters from nursery rhymes and literature with the intent of entertaining and instructing children.
Wallpaper’s next fall and subsequent rise came during World War II. The War Production Board classified wallpaper as a non-essential commodity and greatly reduced the number of allowable styles, new patterns, and sample books. Wallpaper sales picked back up after World War II, though, due in part to the invention of vinyl papers, which were stain resistant, washable, durable and strong. These attributes meant vinyl wallpa­per expanded the treatment’s use beyond just the home, to commercial settings like hospitals, hotels and restau­rants. By the mid-1960s, vinyl accounted for nearly fifty percent of all wallpaper sales.
How to date wallpaper
Because wallpaper has been prevalent since the 1800s, it is possible the paper in an older house could be any­where from one year to several centuries old. The fol­lowing key clues can help to date the paper: construction date of the house, paper texture, the printing process of the paper, the paper color and finish, paper size and the pattern or style.
Construction date of the house
Typically homeowners decorated their houses within one to two years after construction was completed, so knowing the house’s construction date can help place the age of the wallpaper. Additions or remodeling of the home could also mean paper was added or changed, so dates for those types of house alterations are important as well. New homeowners would also add their own decorative stamp to the house. Knowing all these kinds of dates can be a good first step in dating the paper.UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 3
Fig. 4: Drop-repeating design of tripod and bouquet of flowers, with foliage scrolls and addorsed birds. Block printed in pink on handmade blue paper, c.1780.
Fig. 5: Late 1870s to 80s example: William Morris, Fruit, block printed.
Paper texture
Several components of the paper also offer clues. Prior to 1840, gluing individual sheets together produced wall­paper rolls. The resulting horizontal seams are distinctly visible under a raking light. If the house was built before 1840, look for this telltale sign.
The fibers in wallpaper also offer hints to its age. If they run in multiple directions, it is probably handmade and dates from before 1840. If the fibers run in regular verti­cal alignment, it is machine-made and dates anywhere from 1840 to the present. If only small fragments of the paper exist, put it under a microscope to see the fibers.
The ingredients in wallpaper also point to its age. Wood pulp became a main component of machine-made wall­paper in the 1850s, replacing rags. Today it is characteris­tically brittle and brown from the acid in the wood pulp. Vinyl wallpaper, introduced in 1947, is recognizable for its shiny texture and strength, and would be found in commercial buildings as well as homes.
Paper paint and finish
The type of paint used on wallpaper will help date it as well. To determine the type, place a drop of water on a small area. If the pigments do not run, it was printed to­wards the end of the 1800s when sanitary papers began using insoluble pigments. Around this time manufactur­ers were also varnishing paper to keep pigments from running; this sealing technique is distinctive because, over time, the varnish discolored and turned a dirty nicotine color.
Paper size
Measuring the paper can also help determine its age. Older papers ranged from 18 to 23 inches wide, depend­ing on their country of origin.
Paper pattern or style
At any given time throughout out the history of wallpa­per usage, consumers could choose a style ranging from motifs, to florals, to pictorials, to overall patterns, to geo­metrics. Some common color and design tips can help establish a tentative date for paper. Therefore this brief will give an overview of popular styles and patterns of certain time periods. Because little original paper remains in homes from the early to mid-1800s, however, the brief will focus on later wallpaper.
Late 1870s to 1880s: By the late 1870s, the Arts and Crafts Movement was underway, emphasizing form versus ornament. Wallpapers reflected this ideal and featured simple and naturalistic patterns, which fell into two distinct categories--those that featured very linear floral and foliate patterns and those with dense, over­lapping designs. William Morris papers were popular during this time and featured stylized interpretations of natural forms. Homeowners commonly bought the patterns Chrysanthemum, Sunflower, and Fruit. (Fig. 5)
Another popular style, Anglo-Japanese wallpapers, relied on natural forms as well, but these papers also incorporated asymmetrically composed circles, rectan­gles, and squares filled with Japanese or exotic motifs. These papers came in the Aesthetic Movement colors of ochre, olive, umber, and russet, highlighted by teal blue and metallic gold. UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 4
Fig. 6: 1890s to 1915 example: Lincrusta, painted and gilded.
Fig. 7: 1915 to 1930s example: William Morris, Ancan­thus, block printed.
Stripes, perhaps with a repeating motif, became stylish during this time as well. Scenic wallpapers enjoyed a new round of popularity. Wallpaper maker Zuber reissued many of the designs it first made in the 1830s and 1840s (fig. 9). For those who embraced Modernism, manufacturers created subtly textured wallpaper like grass cloth paper.
1950s to 1960: Mid-century wallpapers featured pictorial patterns relating to the function of the room such as fruit and vegetables for the kitchen, and soaps, toothbrushes, and rubber ducks for the bathroom. Other papers popular in the modern interior included stylized sailboats and abstract seagulls done in machine-age col­ors such as red, black, white, and metallic silver. During this time, a homeowner might have used the decorative treatment on an entire room, or just a single wall for a colorful accent (fig. 10).
One word of caution: these tips serve merely as guide­lines for dating papers and may not apply to every wall­paper sample. Consumers did not necessarily follow the tastemakers and trends, and, as a result, a 1920s house could be papered in a Rococo revival swag from the late 1800s. Other patterns, such as William Morris designs, have never gone out of style and are still printed today using the same wooden blocks (fig. 11).
Conserving Wallpaper
In order to protect historic wallpaper, homeowners need to understand both the external factors and the inherent internal factors affecting paper.
As with all types of paper, light and fluctuations in tem­perature and relative humidity can cause wallpaper and its paint to break down. Laminations of the paper, like
Also at this time, paper was used to visually divide walls into three clearly distinctive horizontal sections: frieze at the top, fill, and then dado below the chair rail. Wallpaper also covered ceilings.
1890s to 1915: Towards the end of the 1800s, simple frieze and sidewall designs replaced the elaborate tripar­tite designs of the previous decades. Organic and natural forms remained popular as well with papers reflecting the scrolling foliage of the Arts and Crafts Movement or the rhythmic lines of Art Noveau.
In addition, wallpapers evoking traditional moiré, damask, and tapestry patterns became popular, but they were done in the colors of the Aesthetic Movement. Peo­ple also used Rococo revival curves, scrolls, bows, and decidedly un-naturalistic depictions of flowers. Those who wanted a more subdued look could choose Oatmeal papers, which were thick, softly colored papers imbed­ded with colored threads.
Embossed wallpapers such as Lincrusta and Anaglypta also became a popular choice. These papers were thick and strong and the patterns were done in high relief. They came in white and were then painted after being hung on the wall (fig. 6).
1915 to 1930s: The naturalistic and simple Arts and Crafts and Art Nouveau style designs still adorned walls until the beginning of World War II, but they started having competition in the 1920s (fig. 7). As Revival style architecture gained popularity, manufacturers created complimentary wallpaper designs based on eighteenth and nineteenth century floral chintz patterns (fig. 8). UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 5
Fig. 8: 1915 to 1930s example: Very stylized floral bou­quets and butterflies; machine printed.
Fig. 9: 1915 to 1930s example: Zuber, El Dorado, block printed.
varnish, can also damage it. Varying temperature and moisture levels can also make the adhesives fail, with the paper peeling away from the wall as a result.
Structural problems with the house also pose a danger. Cracks caused by movement will strain and tear the paper. Water leaks can stain it as well as encourage mold growth, both of which weaken the paper and the paint. Crumbling plaster or emanating salts can also cause damage.
Normal wear and tear may be the most apparent danger to wallpaper. Oil from human hands, graffiti, scratches from furniture, and holes made for fixtures all damage wallpaper.
If the wallpaper survives all these external factors, it may not survive the internal factors present due to its very composition. Papers dating after 1850 may be brittle because of the poor quality wood pulp used to make them. The paint may become powdery and flaky due to the starch, animal glue, or gelatin that was used to bind the pigments to the paper.
Once the cause of deterioration is understood, it can be addressed. But before the cleaning or repairing process is started, it is important to document this surviving example of the material culture. Comprehensive photos of the paper should be taken and any additional histori­cal evidence noted and retained, such as paint colors that might be applied over the paper. It is also important to record how the paper was hung, such as whether it was applied directly to the wall or put over a liner such as muslin.
After fully documenting the wallpaper, it is time to determine whether the paper can be cleaned and/or repaired in the house (in situ) or if it will need to be removed for cleaning and repair. The removal of non-in­grained dirt and dust as well as deposits and stains can often be done with the paper remaining on the wall. In situ is also recommended when the damage to the wallpaper is minor, such as a tear or small detached area and when the wall is in good shape. This ensures the wallpaper retains its historical integrity by preserving the seams and paste from the original installation.
The cleaning process for wallpaper that looks dusty or grimy starts with a close examination of the paper. If any pigments are loose, a conservator should be consulted because a cleaning done by untrained hands could dam­age the wallpaper. Otherwise, a soft-bristled brush can be used on the paper. Do not scrub vigorously, however, because the action can loosen pigments. Wiping with a damp sponge can also remove dirt, but test a section first UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 6
to make sure the paint is insoluble. Again, do not scrub vigorously even if the paint does not wash off when exposed to water.
When repairing torn or loose wallpaper, homeowners should avoid several tempting practices. Wallpaper should never be re-adhered with Scotch tape, rubber cement, or Duco cement because these adhesives are non-archival and can cause staining. Paper conservators recommend using methylcellulose because its gel-like quality makes it easy to handle. Homeowners should also avoid varnishing or shellacking the paper because, like early varnish, modern varnish will also yellow over time. In addition, the sealant will add an unnatural sheen to the paper.
Removal of wallpaper for repair is only recommended when the paper is severely deteriorated, such as when the lining of the paper or the wall itself is failing. An experienced conservator is the best person for this job because removing whole walls of paper requires skill. A conservator is also the best choice for the cleaning and repair of the deteriorated historic wallpaper.
When it is time to rehang the paper, conservators should use the method and materials as close to the original method as possible. The conservator should also provide a manual for how to care for and protect the wallpaper in the future.
Reproducing wallpaper
Not all historic house owners are lucky enough to have intact original wallpaper left in their home. Just be­cause the visible evidence of a house’s paper past does not jump out, though, does not mean some fragments aren’t hiding. Later architectural changes often cover the evidence. Door moldings, base boards, crown molding and fireplaces can conceal paper because contractors rarely took the time to strip it before construction. Under sinks, behind cabinets, under picture moldings, and even under switch plates are other good hiding places. Frequently large pieces of furniture, such as bookcas­es or mirrors fastened to the walls, were not removed when new layers of paper were installed or old paper was removed for a paint finish. If the fragments contain layers of paper, a conservator should be called in to re­move them; the conservator should then carefully steam apart the layers. Richard Nylander with Historic New England once found 27 layers of paper that ranged from 1780 to the 1930s.
After finding a fragment, a homeowner may discover a modern company is reproducing the pattern. But not all “reproduction” paper on the market will be a good choice for a historic home. For example, sample books labeled “The Colonial Collection” contain styles that were never used during the eighteenth century. Terms such as “adapted from” and “inspired by” mean the paper is not a true reproduction.
The original printing process should also be mimicked in the final look of reproduction paper. The designs of block printed papers should be strong edged with thick, opaque shapes and no visible brushstrokes. The recre­ated images of machine printed papers should have a thin-bodied color and sharp lines around the shapes (fig. 12).
Fig. 10: 1950s to 60s example: Kitchen or bar paper with objects such as a rooster and chicken brightly colored in red, teal, yellow, lime green, white, and black placed on a grey ground; machine printed.
Fig. 11: Reproduction example: William Morris, Pimper­nell, c.1972, block printed.UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 7
When a wallpaper pattern is not in production, custom reproductions can be silkscreen printed. Like mass-mar­ket reproduction paper, custom paper should mimic the look of machine or hand-blocked papers. When commis­sioning a reproduction, it is also helpful to state strongly that the artist is not to “improve” the design or fade the colors to give it an antique look. Also remember to pro­tect the sample. If it is large enough, send only a section, but always encase it in mylar first. Manufacturers do usually require people to order a minimum number of rolls, and it is always a good rule to order enough paper to paper the room twice in case damage occurs during the hanging process or later.
Whether using mass-produced or custom reproduc­tion wallpaper, it is important to hang it so it retains a period look. In the past, seams were rarely straight but appeared wavy, and designs didn’t always match up. Though it might sound costly, hiring an experienced paperhanger will give the best results.
Interior decorators are a good source for finding skilled paperhangers as well as helping homeowners explore all the sources for reproduction and custom reproduction papers.
Wallpaper legacy
Even if a homeowner does not keep or reproduce wallpaper found in their house, the paper should be preserved in some fashion. Even the smallest fragment should be considered important and worth saving. Future generations of homeowners will take delight in seeing a tangible glimpse of the house’s early history and the tastes of previous owners.
Creative ways exist to leave the legacy out on display for everyone to see and enjoy. Some homeowners frame it and then hang it on the wall as artwork. Others compile a wallpaper scrapbook they leave out as a coffee table book. The staff at one house museum found older paper under paper they wanted to keep; they used hinges on a section of the outermost paper so visitors could “peel” it back to see the older paper underneath.
This brief on historic wallpaper is suggestive at best, and as every historic homeowner knows, each house contains unique situations. Individual research will still be needed, but owners who are armed with the basic knowledge of this wall treatment will be on the road to preserving this decorative and culturally telling art form.
Bibliography
A Laymen’s Guide to Historic Wallpaper Reproduction: (An Overview Of Historical and Modern Produc­tion Techniques, Some Jargon Unraveled, and Some Tips on Dating Historic Patterns). (1984) [Electronic Version] Association for Preservation Technology Bulletin 16(1), 57-58.
Background on Historic Wallpaper Types. (n.d.). Re­trieved on February 6, 2006, from www.adelphiapa­perhangings.com/types.html
Care and Conservation of Historic Wallpaper. (n.d.). Retrieved on February 6, 2006, from www.historic­newengland.org/wallpaper/care/index.htm
Garrett, E. D. (1990). At home: the American family 1775-1870. New York: Henry N. Adams, Inc. Publishers.
Gilmore, A. M. (1981). Wallpaper and its conservation: an architectural conservator’s perspective. [Electronic Version] Journal of the American Institute for Conserva­tion, 20(2), 74-82.
Greysmith, B. (1976). Wallpaper. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co, Inc.
History of Wallpaper. (n.d.). Retrieved on February 6, 2006, from www.historicnewengland.org/wallpa­per/history/index.htm
Fig. 12: Example of reproduction paper surrounding the original rectangle sample in the middle.UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 8
Kelly, R. M. (2004). 6 ways to survive a wallpaper proj­ect: A quick guide to avoiding the most common pit­falls. [Electronic Version] Old-House Journal. Retrieved February 6, 2006 from www.oldhousejournal.com/magazine/2004/jan/wallpaper.shtml.
Lynn, C. (1977). Wallpapers in Historic Preservation. Wash­ington, DC: Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Office of Archeology and Historic Preserva­tion, Technical Preservation Services Division, U.S. Government Printing Office.
Lynn, C. (1980). Wallpaper in America. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
Mapes, P. (1997). Historic wallpaper conservation. Re­trieved February 6, 2006, from www.buildingconser­vation.com.
McDermott, A. (2004). Wallpapers in the historic interior. Retrieved February 6, 2006, from www.buildingcon­servation.com
Miller, J. (1998). The style sourcebook. New York: U.S. Media Holdings.
Nylander, R. (1992). Wallpapers for historic buildings. Washington, DC: The Preservation Press.
Schunck. R. (n.d.) Wallpaper History. Retrieved February 6, 2006, from www.wallpaperinstaller.com/wallpa­per_history.html
The investigation, analysis and authentication of historic wallpaper. (n.d.). Retrieved on February 6, 2006, from www.welshcolor.com/wallpaper.html
Wallpaper Resources. (n.d.). Retrieved from on March 25, 2006, from www.historicnewengland.org/wallpa­per/resources/index.html
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Jill Bloomer and Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum, Smithsonian Institution for the use of the wallpaper images illustrating the histori­cal styles; to Adelphi Paper Hangings for the use of the images depicting the methods for making wallpaper; and Emily Fearnbach of Salem Designs for helping me understand the many differences in wallpaper paper types.
The Historic Dimension Series is a collection of briefs prepared by UNCG students under the direction of Professor Jo Ramsay Leimenstoll. For information on other topics in the series please visit the website at go.uncg.edu/hds