SOUTHEAST ASIAN
AMERICAN FOOD
HABITS .
PROPtRTY OFT~~ U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
LIBRARY ~~~ FOOD AND NUTRITION SERVICE
0 C 1 SEPTEMBER 1980 •t iV
T 3 1980 FNS-22s D.e~ost 0.1.1
University of North Carolina
By spring 1980, over 325,800 Southeast at Greensthfo food is typically bland, relatively
Asian refugees resettled in the United 1nEYxpensive, and easy to prepare. The
States. Approximately 40 percent are · staple food provides energy. It also
children. Many more refugees (up' to provides protein that is of low biolog-
14,000 each month) will be admitted to . ical value to the overall diet. Staples
the United States in 1980 from Vietnam, of different cultures include cereal
Cambodia, and Laos. Because of food grains such as rice, wheat, millet, and
shortages and the prevalence of disease corn, or starchy tubers such as potatoes,
in these countries, members of these yams, taros, and cassava.
groups are particularly vulnerable to
nutritional problems. Pregnant arid lactating
women, infants, and preschool--age '•
children are at particular nutritional
risk.
The Supplemental Food Program for Women,
Infants, and Children (WIC) and the
Commodity Supplemental Food Program
(CSFP) are means by which the nutritional
status of Southeast Asian Americans can
be enhanced. In addition to supplying
nutritious foods to supplement the diets
of eligible women, infants, and children,
Southeast Asian Americans can learn
about the foods in the ·American marketplace
through WIC and CSFP.
Nutrition education can be defined as a
deliberate attempt to influence the
nature of the diet people consciously
choose, in an effort to improve or maintain
their health. To accomplish this
goal, the nutrition educator needs to
weave a dietary plan from the traditional
nutritional fibers of the culture.
FOOD HABITS_P)'RAMID-A CONCEPTUAL
MODEL
Table 1 depicts a conceptual model in
which foods of Southeast Asia can be
viewed. The food habits pyramid identifies
three categories of foods that
are characteristic of many Southeast
Asian cultures (a staple food, seasoned
food mixtures, and status foods) and
depicts their relative caloric contribution
to the total diet.
Many cultures have a staple food that
forms the foun~ation of their diet.
Rice, which is the staple food for
Southeast Asians, provides up to 80 percent
of the calories they consume daily.
In Vietnam, when one person asks another,
"Have you eaten today?", he or she is
actually asking "Have you had rice
today?" As the staple food in Southeast
Asia, rice is the major part of each
meal. When food is served without rice, .
the Southeast Asians consider it a
snack.
The staple food of any culture is relatively
resistant to change. Howe_ver,
the use of enriched or whole-grai~ rice
can improve the nutritional contribution
of rice to the diet.
The nutritional value of the Southeast
Asian diet is enhanced by a variety of
vegetables, legumes, nuts, fish, eggs,
meats, and certain grains. Because
these foods contribute protein of high
biological value and a variety of vitamins
and minerals to the diet, they are
called protective foods. These protective
foods are used in various combinations,
along with traditional spices, to
prepare seasoned dishes that give palatability
and ethnic identity to a meal.
Southeast Asians 'are referring to these
dishes when they ask "Did you enjoy your
meal?"
The quantity and type of protective
foods consumed are influenced by various
factors including geography, income,
religion, and taboos. Families with
higher incomes typically eat a greater
amount of meat or fish and a greater
~ogranis of the lJ.S. Department ·of Agriculture are available to all eligible people regardless otrace, color, cre~d, sex, national
origin, age, political belief, or handicap.
2
Encourage continued consumption of traditional
status foods such as fresh
fruits, and promote use of other nutri-tious
foods that may have status value,
such as ice cream. Discourage adoption
of status foods that have a low nutrient
density, such as soft drinks and candy.
STATUS
FOODS
Encourage variety in the diet through
selected additions of unfamiliar, nutritious
ingredients to traditional mixtures.
SEASONED FOOD MIXTURES
Attempt to promote the use of more nutritious
and less expensive forms of the
preferred staple.
STAPLE FOOD
FOOD HABITS PYRAMID-A CONCEPTUAL MODEL
TABLE 1.
variety of protective foods than do
lower income families. These familiar
seasoned food mixtures are susceptible
to certain modifications when Southeast
Asians resettle in the United States.
Therefore, a major focus for nutrition
education should be to enhance the
quality or increase the quantity of these
dishes. For example, ingredients could
be added to a familiar dish to enhance
its nutritional contribution without
significantly altering its characteristic
flavor.
Other foods that are characteristic of
cultures are status foods. These foods
are generally expensive and are not
commonly a part of the daily diet in the
native country. Southeast As~ans regard
fruits, soft drinks, and alcohol as
status foods. Status foods high in
sugar, such as soft drinks, can complicate
the already existing dental caries
among Southeast Asians. Economic and
nutritional benefits may be obtained by
discouraging consumption of status foods
with a low nutrient density and encouraging
continued consumption of status
foods that have a high nutrient density
and are also acceptable to the culture.
Fruits and certain status foods that use
milk products, such as pudding, could be
promoted in this way.
Knowledge of traditional food habits of
a culture will provide a solid base for
educational plans and will also help in
achieving specific nutritional goals.
The following section contains information
on Southeast Asian meal patterns,
food preparation techniques, and traditional
foods.
MEAL PATIERNS
Daily food fare for Vietnamese, Cambodians,
and Laotians consists of three
meals and optional snacks. One or
several dishes are prepared for each
meal (this varies with family income)
and are served communal style. In
spite of similarities, there are variations
in cuisine among and within Southeast
Asian countries. French and Chinese
influences are apparent as a result
of these nationalities' historical
occupation of Southeast Asia. Further
change in food habits occurs after
refugee families resettle in the United
States 1 •2 •
Breakfast - (a light meal)
Soup (broth, fish or meat,
greens, sprouts, and noodles)
or rice and fish, meat, or egg
Bread
Coffee or tea (coffee is
usually taken with sugar and
cream, tea without these additions)
Lunch and Dinner
Rice served with small portions
of fish or meat and vegetables,
and fish sauce or soy sauce
and seasonings
Soup
Fruit
Beverage (tea, coffee, soft
drink, or alcoholic beverage
such as beer or wine)
Table 2 identifies sample meals for the
Vietnamese, Cambodians, and Laotians.
3
TABLE2 SAMPLE MEAL PATTERN
VIETNAMESE
Breakfast
Lunch and Dinner
(similar)
Snacks
CAMBODIAN
Breakfast
Lunch and Dinner
(similar)
Snacks
*See Glossary
4
soup "pho" contains rice noodles, thin
slices of beef or chicken, bean
sprouts, and greens
or boiled eggs and crusty bread
or rice and leftover meat
or combinations of above foods
tea or coffee
rice
fish and/or meat and vegetable dish
fish sauce "nuoc mam"*
clear soup with vegetables and/or meat
tea, coffee, soft drinks, or alcoholic
beverage
fruits
clear soup
soup with meat and noodles and/or rice
tea or coffee
rice
fermented fish "prahoc"* fish sauce
"tuk-trey"* with vegetables (cabbage,
cucumbers and/or turnips)
tea, coffee; soft drinks, or alcoholic
beverage
sweets made from palm sugar
bananas
clear soup
LAOTIAN
Breakfast
Lunch and Dinner
(similar)
Snacks
*See Glossary
Source: See 4, 6, 8, 11, 14
rice
boiled egg, roasted meat, or fish with
sauce
tea or coffee
fish "padek" and/or meat stew with hot
peppers
rice
cucumber salad
tea, coffee, soft drinks, or alcoholic
beverage
bananas
stew
5
GLOSSARY
Sweet or Glutinous Rice: This type of
rice is often called "sticky rice"
because, when cooked, the rice grains
blend together into what is nearly a
dough. In addition to its exclusive
use among eth ·.c Laotians, glutinous
rice is also used by Southeast Asians
in special recipes and in dessert
cakes or sweets3.
Fermented Fish Paste ("Padek"--Laos,
"Prahoc"--Cambodia): This fermented
fish (and its broth) is a staple of
the ethnic Laotian and Cambodian
diets. Small whole fish and salt
(rice bran is also sometimes added)
are put into covered jars and left to
ferment for several months. The
result is almost equal parts liquid
and solid chunks of fish with a penetrating
odor4.
Fish Sauce ("Nuoc Mam"--Vietnam, "Tuktrey"--
Cambodia): This sauce is
commonly used as a seasoning in Vietnamese
and Cambodian dishes. "Nuoc
mam" is made by tightly packing layers
of fresh, small fish and salt into
wooden casks and allowing the fish to
ferment. After several months, a
liquid that contains significant
amounts of protein and other watersoluble
nutrients is drained off.
The first draining is considered to
be the best quality of fish sauce.
"Nuoc mam" refers both to the full
strength liquid used in cooking, and
to a "dip" made of the sauce, water,
vinegar, sugar, and additional seasonings3.
Soy Sauce: This is liquid extracted
from fermented steamed rice, roasted
soybeans, and salt. It is used as a
seasoning.
6
FOOD SHOPPING AND PREPARATION
PROVIDE SOUTHEAST ASIAN AMERICANS WITH
INFORMATION ON PROPER STORAGE OF PERISHABLE
FOODS.
PROVIDE SUGGESTIONS FOR CUTTING DOWN
COSTS WHEN SHOPPING, SUCH AS USING
STORE BRANDS, UNIT PRICING, AND SALES
INFORMATION.
In Southeast Asia, food is generally
purchased daily from independent vendors
who sell meat, produce, canned goods,
and other foods in open markets and in
food stores. Frequent shopping among
urban families is common because of the
availability of household help. Because
many households do not have refrigerators,
perishable foods must be purchased often.
However, when Southeast Asians resettle
in the United States, they must make
changes in food buying practices. They
do not purchase food as often as in
Southeast Asia, and shop for it in
oriental food stores and supermarkets.
Traditional Southeast Asian dishes take
considerable time to prepare. Certain
ingredients, such as spices, may be
ground with a mortar and pestle in a
traditional household or with an electric
grinder in a contemporary one. An
increase in the popularity of electric
grinders among Southeast Asian families
in the United States has been influenced
by the fact that more women are working
outside the home, and they desire to
simplify meal preparation.
In many Southeast Asian dishes, meat or
fish and vegetables are chopped into
small, uniform pieces before cooking.
Cooking methods include stir-frying,
roasting, boiling, and steaming. Vegetable
oils and pork fat are principal
fats used in cooking 5• However, overall
fat content in the diet is small. Modest
fat intake can be attributed to the
small proportion of meat in the diet
compared to the large proportion of rice.
An essential aspect of Asian cooking is
the interesting assortment of seasonings
used in cooking. Fish sauce and soy
sauce, both of which are high in sodium,
typically replace table salt as a seasoning.
Hot peppers are used generously in
Laotian dishes4. Ginger root, garlic,
onions, leeks, mint, coconut, cinnamon,
coriander, lemon grass, and other herbs
and seasonings contribute to the robust
flavor of Southeast Asian dishes3.
RICE
ENCOURAGE THE CONTINUED CONSUMPTION OF
RICE AS A STAPLE FOOD.
ENCOURAGE THE USE OF IRON-FORTIFIED
INFANT RICE CEREAL WHEN SOLID FOODS ARE
INTRODUCED INTO THE INFANT'S DIET.
DEMONSTRATE THAT THE INTRODUCTION OF
IRON-FORTIFIED INFANT RICE CEREAL IS
COMPATIBLE WITH TRADITIONAL FOOD HABITS
AND OFFERS THE BABY ADDITIONAL NUTRITIONAL
BENEFITS.
ENCOURAGE INTRODUCING SOLID FOODS OTHER
THAN RICE IN AN INFANT'S DIET AFTER 6
MONTHS, ONE AT A TIME. AFTER INTRODUCING
VEGETABLES AND MEATS INTO THE DIET
SEPARATELY, THESE MAY BE COMBINED WITH
RICE FOR A BABY'S COMPLETE MEAL.
Rice is the staple of the Southeast Asian
diet. It is eaten at almost every meal
and accounts for the greatest proportion
of calories consumed daily. Differences
in variety and methods of rice preparation
are perhaps subtle to Westerners,
but are of extreme importance to Asians.
For example, the Vietnamese like rice
that is very dry and flaky, as do the
Cambodians. Most Laotians, however,
prefer glutinous rice, which is sticky.
The exception is the Laotian hill people
(including the Hmong) who prefer nonglutinous
rice.
Grains other than rice (such as corn) are
not consumed in quantity by rural Southeast
Asians6. As a result of French
influence, bread is popular among urban
families. Noodles made from wheat and
rice are used in soups and main dishes.
Examples are rice vermicelli (thin rice
noodles) and rice sticks.
The first solid food Southeast Asians
usually introduce to infants is rice (or
rice flour and water in the form of a
gruel). This feeding practice may be
initiated as early as 1 month of age
7-10 However, introducing other solid
foods is often delayed until the infant
is at least 1 year old. This feeding
habit may result in lower weight gain for
these infants or in deficiencies of needed
nutrients. Weight records are useful
tools that can assist in identifying such
unhealthy feeding practices, one of the
focuses for nutrition education.
LEGUMES
ENCOURAGE THE INCREASED CONSUMPTION OF
LOCALLY AVAILABLE NATIVE LEGUMES SUCH AS
SOYBEANS AND MUNG BEANS •
Common legumes in Southeast Asia include
soybeans, mung beans, and peanuts. The
versatile nature of the soybean in preparing
sauces, bean curd, and soy milk
makes it popular among Cambodians and
Vietnamese 11,12 • Mung bean noodles and
bean sprouts are used in soups and dishes.
VEGETABLES
PROMOTE THE CONTIN~D CONSUMPTION OF A
WIDE VARIETY OF VEGETABLES.
ENCOURAGE HOME AND COMMUNITY GARDENING AS
A SOURCE OF NATIVE VEGETABLES.
INFORM SOUTHEAST ASIANS THAT VEGETABLES
GROWN IN AMERICAN SOIL CAN BE EATEN RAW
AFTER BEING RINSED WITH TAP WATER (BOILING
WATER IS UNNECESSARY).
ENCOURAGE EXCHANGE OF EXPENSIVE NATIVE
VEGETABLES FOR INEXPENSIVE ACCEPTABLE
SUBSTITUTES.
A large variety of vegetables are grown
and consumed in Southeast Asia. However,
in some regions of Laos and Cambodia, few
leafy vegetables are consumed 7,8. Fresh,
crisp vegetables are preferred to those
in cans, since the latter are "mushy"
when cooked. A number of vegetables used
in Southeast Asian dishes can easily be
purchased in American markets. These
include tomatoes, onions, cucumbers,
green beans, eggplants, peppers, green
leafy vegetables, carrots, lettuce,
7
squash, and mushrooms. Other Southeast
Asian vegetables ipcluding spinach-like
greens, cabbages, and various herbs are
not widely available. These items are
frequently obtained from oriental food
markets, home gardens, or ordered by
mail.
ANIMAL PROTEIN
FAMILIARIZE SOUTHEAST ASIAN AMERICANS
WITH THE PRICE PER SERVING OF ANIMAL
PROTEIN TO ENCOURAGE ECONOMICAL FOOD
BUYS. POULTRY AND EGGS SERVE AS ECONOMICAL
SUBSTITUTES FOR PORK AND FISH.
PROVIDE TIPS ON ECONOMICAL BUYS IN LINE
WITH TRADITIONAL FOOD HABITS (SUCH AS
PREPARING FROZEN FISH IN ACCEPTABLE WAYS).
Compared to the American diet, Southeast
Asian diet has a much smaller amount of
animal protein. Many varieties of fish
and shellfish are popular among Southeast
Asians. Fresh fish may be cooked
with a sauce and served over rice. In
some areas of Laos, fish is eaten raw9.
Other traditional forms of fish preparation
are designed to preserve fish.
Fermented fish provides the basis for
popular Laotian and Cambodian dishes.
Sauces derived from fermented fish are
widely used by the Vietnamese, Cambodians,
and Laotians.
Other animal protein sources used in
cooking are pork, chicken, duck, beef,
eggs, and organ meats. On coming to the
United States, Southeast Asians encounter
differences in cost and availability of
traditional foods. Chicken and eggs are
less expensive in American food markets
than pork and fish, which-were the least
expensive animal protein sources in their
native lands 13.
MILK AND CHEESE
ENCOURAGE CHILDREN AND PREGNANT AND LACTATING
WOMEN TO USE DAIRY PRODUCTS AND
TO INCREASE THE VARIETY AND QUANTITY OF
FOOD IN THEIR DIETS.
On a per capita basis, Southeast Asians
consume very few dairy products, although
chlldren consume more than adu:)..ts 11,14,15.
8
Fresh milk and cheese are typically unavailable
in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos.
However, canned sweetened condensed milk
and evaporated milk can be purchased in
stores. Of these two, the sweetened
condensed milk is often preferred16.
Lactose intolerance, which affects many
Asians, may discourage consumption of
dairy products, especially among adults16.
However, people who are intolerant to
lactose can frequently consume small
quantities of dairy products without any
symptoms and adapt over a period of time
to increased quantities of dairy products
in their diets. Alternative sources of
calcium in the diet include fermented
fish products, dried fish and small
whole fish, soft-shell crabs, shrimp,
bean curd, soy milk, and leafy vegetables17.
Many Southeast Asian women do not increase
their caloric intake during pregnancy
and lactation, and many do not
include milk in their diets 7 ,8,15,18 •
In some cases, traditional food practices
restrict the consumption of animal
protein, vegetables, fruits, and other
foods 18,19 •
ENCOURAGE BREASTFEEDING. POINT OUT THE
NUTRITIONAL ADVANTAGES OF BREAST MILK.
IT MAY BE HELPFUL TO INFORM MOTHERS THAT
BREASTFEEDING AMONG MANY MIDDLE AND
UPPER INCOME AMERICAN WOMEN HAS INCREASED.
PROVIDE INSTRUCTIONS ON FORMULA PREPARATION,
SANITATION, AND STORAGE.
In Southeast Asia, the majority of
infants are breast-fed. The breastfeeding
period usually extends until a
child is at least 1 year old 10,15,18,19,20.
Infants who are not breast-fed may be
given sweetened condensed milk 1 ,8,10 •
In the United States, there is a growing
trend toward bottlefeeding among Southeast
Asian Americans. Use of infant
formula in bottles has increased among
Southeast Asian women because of its
availability and because it is seen as a
status symbol: Also, Southeast Asian
women working outside the home may choose
to bottlefeed because it is convenient.
Problems with bottlefeeding occur because
of difficulty in understanding the instructions
for preparing the formula.
For example, Southeast Asian Americans
may prepare concentrated and ready-tofeed
infant formulas the same way. Sanitation
problems may occur during the preparation
and refrigeration of formula21,
FRUITS
SUPPORT USE OF FRUITS AS DESSERT AND
POINT OUT THE POSITIVE NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS
OF THIS CULTURAL PRACTICE.
FIRST, ENCOURAGE EATING ORANGES AS A
SOURCE OF VITAMIN C. THEN, SUGGEST USING
OTHER CITRUS FRUITS. ENCOURAGE FRUIT
JUICES AS ALTERNATIVES TO SOFT DRINKS
AND FRUIT DRINKS.
IDENTIFY FRUITS IN SEASON TO ENCOURAGE
ECONOMICAL BUYS.
Southeast Asians usually serve fruits
fresh as desserts or snacks. Popular
fruits include mangos, pineapples,
papayas, lichees, jackfruit, coconuts,
bananas, and oranges. Of these, bananas
are the most universal and in some
regions of Cambodia and Laos, the only
fruit available7,8, 22• Oranges are very
expensive in Southeast Asia and are
considered a status food. In American
markets, however, oranges are inexpensive
and are widely available.
SWEETS
SUPPORT THE TRADITIONAL DIETARY PRACTICE
OF LIMITED CONSUMPTION OF STATUS FOODS
THAT ARE SWEET.
Pies and cakes prepared from flour are
not widely available in Southeast Asia.
Relatively few households in Asia are
equipped with ovens. Instead, common
desserts are fresh fruits, steamed cakes,
and sweets prepared from glutinous rice3,
Southeast Asians new to the United States
are quickly exposed to a wide range of
products that are high in sugar, such as
soft drinks, sweetened cereals, and
candy. Both television and in-store
merchandising of these products enhance
their image as status foods and encourage
eating as much as possible of these foods.
BffiiJOGRAPHY
1. Tong, A.: "Food habits of Vietnamese
immigrants in the greater Washington
DC area." Thesis. Howard University,
Washington, DC, .l979.
2. Crane, N., Green, N.: "Food habits
and food preferences of Vietnamese
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Journal of the American Dietetic
Association 76:591, 1980.
3. Steinberg, R.: Pacific and Southeast
Asian Cooking. NY, NY, Time Life
Books, 1972.
4. Gerhold, c.: "Food habits of the
valley people of Laos," Journal of
the American Dietetic Association
50:4932, 1967.
5. Hamilton, L.: "Vietnam- Foods and
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6. Whitaker, D.P.: Area Handbook for
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Washington, DC, 1972, p. 87.
7. Budlovsky, J,: "Nutrition advisory
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Regional Office for the Western
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Manila, Philippines, 1971.
8. Budlovsky, J.: "Nutritional problems
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Regional Office for the Western
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Manila, Philippines, 1971.
9. Harinsuta, c., Grossman, B.A.,
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related diseases of public health
importance in the Lower Mekong Basin:
A review." SEADAG (Southeast Asia
Development Advisory Group) Papers,
The Asia Society- SEADAG, NY, NY,
1973.
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Pacific, World Health Organization,
Manila, Philippines, 1970.
9
11. Manuel Cambodgien de Nutrition.
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de L'Alimentation, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia, 1970.
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Cuisine of Vietnam. NY, NY, Barron's
/Woodbury, 1979.
13. Du, P.: Personal Communication.
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
14. Kaufman, M.: Vietnam, 1978: "Crisis
in food, nutrition, and health."
Journal of the American Dietetic
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15. Ireson, C.: "Nutrition survey of six
Lao villages." International
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1969.
16. Ann, N.T., Thuc, T.K., and Welsh,
J.D.: "Lactose malabsorption in
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of Clinical Nutrition 30:463, 1977.
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F.H.: Food Composition Table for Use
in East Asia. National Institute of
Arthritis, Metabolism, and Digestive
Diseases, National Institutes of
Health, US Department of Health,
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1972.
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NY, NY, 1972.
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Interdepartmental Committee on
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NY, NY, 1972.
10
21. Cairns, K.A.: "Hmong food ways in
Ramsey County." Ramsey County Community
Health Services, St. Paul,
Minn, 1979.
22. Whitaker, D.P.: Area Handbook for the
Khmer Republic (Cambodia). US
Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC, 1972, p. 92.
