Linoleum: The ultimate flooring

              The Historic
Dimension Series
A student publication series by the UNCG Department of Interior Architecture
Linoleum: The Ultimate Flooring
by Catherine French 	 	 	 Spring 2013
Patented in 1863,
linoleum quickly
became a popular floor
covering from the 1860s to the 1940s. Latin
for “linseed oil,” linoleum is produced from
all-natural ingredients, comes in a variety of
colors and lasts for decades. This renewable
material is receiving increased interest from
both preservationists and sustainability
activists in the field. Additionally, it is
increasingly popular for its water-resistant,
sanitation, and heat and sound-insulating
properties. The purpose of the brief is to
explore its various attributes, explain how to
identify it in the field, and cover techniques
for maintenance and repair.
History of Linoleum
The term “linoleum” is frequently used
today to refer to various flooring materials
developed and used throughout the
twentieth century. The predecessor to these
other substitutes, linoleum was developed
by Englishman Frederick Walton in the
early 1860s, and patented in 1863. What
is generally referred to in the literature
as a “happy accident,” his discovery
and process was really one of deliberate
experimentation, financed by his father,
with a laboratory within his father’s own
engineering and manufacturing facility.
In response to the opportunities provided
by the industrial revolution, Walton was
one of many exploring alternatives to the
traditional floor oilcloth, which was a
waterproof, decorative floor covering that
had been around for centuries. The 1844
invention of Kamptulican by Englishman
Elijah Galloway was one of the first
alternatives produced, made of India
rubber, gutta percha (a tree sap derivative),
and cork. Already exploring alternatives to
rubber, Walton’s discovery of the oxidized
leathery linseed oil skin on top of a paint
jar that had been sitting for a few weeks
sparked his interest in its waterproofing
possibilities and was quickly experimented
upon further. In 1864, with the backing of
investors and his profit from the sales of his
shares in his father’s business, the Linoleum
Manufacturing Company began production
of Walton’s patented linoleum, a product
that was thicker, more waterproof, resilient
and longer wearing. By 1868, the company
profits were exceeding production costs,
and the profits continued to steadily climb
from there.
Production
Linoleum is oxidized linseed oil cut into
small strips and ground with cork dust,
rosin, gum, and pigments that are heated
and pressed between two heavy rollers (a
process called calendaring) onto a canvas
or burlap backing. Little has changed for
the production process of linoleum since its
original development by Walton. The first
and most crucial step involves oxidizing
the linseed oil in order to ensure its elastic
and waterproof properties. This first step
generally takes six to ten weeks in a heated
shed where the pure linseed oil drips from
perforated piping onto thin cotton scrim
sheets. After the scrim and dried linseed
oil reaches a thickness of about an inch,
it is ground down and mixed with rosin
and kauri gum (fossilized tree sap from
Initially
marketed
for its
cleanliness,
durability
and
affordability
to the
emerging
middle-class,
linoleum
sales
exceeded all
others for a
vast majority
of the early
twentieth
century
for its
superiority
to previous
flooring
options.
UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 2
Fig. 3: 1918 Armstrong advertisement for a nursery floor.
New Zealand) in huge, heated kettles. This mixture is
then poured out onto the floor, allowed to cool, and
subsequently cut into square foot chunks and fed into
yet another grinder, this time to mix with ground cork
dust and pigments. In its final stage of production,
this thick, oily mixture gets pressed between two hot
and heavy rollers onto a canvas or burlap backing, and
placed in a large heated room for several more weeks
to finish the oxidation and drying process. In total, the
linoleum manufacturing process can take anywhere
from 12-24 weeks depending on the design inlay and
thickness. Raw materials used for the production come
from around the world, making this a true international
product, and a key player of the Industrial Age.
Walton’s process for linoleum production was quickly
adopted by all of his competitors once his patent
expired. As the development of patterns and colors
continued, the one major difference of original linoleum
in a printed pattern from a single solid color was that
it required hand blocking the pattern and further
drying for an additional week for the paint to harden.
As the first decade of production progressed, several
manufacturers began experimenting with an inlaid
system that would allow for color patterns that would
continue throughout the linoleum. In America, David
Melvin patented a method in 1889 that involved sheets
of colored linoleum rolled out and cut into patterns.
Workers then hand-pieced the various colored linoleum
sections together into a design over the canvas backing,
which was then heated and re-calendared into one
piece. This method proved so successful that some
manufacturers continued with the same process through
the 1950s. In 1890 Walton patented the first inlay
machine, which reportedly cost two million dollars in
1920. Of the five major linoleum manufacturers based in
the United States, the Armstong Cork and Tile Company
of Lancaster, Pennsylvania rose to the top. Armstrong,
the largest manufacturer in the United States, has not
changed its production methods for linoleum in the
last 150 years and still uses much of the same process
today, although the hand blocked patterns are no longer
available.
Installation
While known for its elastic properties, the original
installation directly onto the wooden subfloor could not
keep up with the seasonal expansion and contraction
of the wood flooring underneath. This led to common
complaints of cracking and buckling of the linoleum,
and professional installation was often recommended,
which included sanding and conditioning the
subfloor. By the 1920s, installation included applying
felt underneath the linoleum with paste directly to
the subfloor, which made linoleum a permanent
floor covering. Heavy and cumbersome in the rolled
format, professionals were often required for uniform
installation. They would start by cutting the seams with
a two-bladed beveled edge trimmer, and then sealing
the seams with special waterproof cement. Once the
linoleum flooring was laid out, a one hundred pound
roller would be used to flatten the surface, and sandbags
would hold down the seams until the floor was dry. It
would take several days for the linoleum to settle and
often there were complaints about an overwhelming
linseed oil smell that would take a few days to dissipate.
Fig. 2: 1940 Armstrong advertisement of color options.
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Fig. 4: 1940s Armstrong advertisement for childrens’
play area in an attic room.
Fig. 5: 1940s Armstrong advertisement depicting the
linoleum floor in the dining room of the Hotel Brunswick.
By 1915, linoleum was offered in over thirty-seven
color combinations and as various imitations of other
common flooring materials like wood and stone.
The six various gauges helped determine the color
and the recommended use. The thickest was dubbed
“Battleship Gauge” and was used on the main decks of
Battleships for a non-slip, non-splintering, waterproof
deck covering, that soon found its way into stores,
restaurants, hospitals, elevators, and public buildings.
The thinner gauges were marketed for residential use
and in areas with less traffic. Linoleum was coveted for
its color throughout the thickness of the material, which
continued to show despite wear and tear. The addition
of cork was key to linoleum’s resiliency properties, but
did not allow for the lighter flooring colors that were
more desirable during its heyday. Powdered wood
was often substituted, but the quality was lacking. The
variations of color combinations could be used for the
first time to create unique and totally customizable
and affordable floor patterns either in the factory or
during the installation process. Advertisements for
residential use incorporated color schemes around
brightly patterned linoleum floors in kitchens and
baths, and custom floor games in children’s bedrooms.
Many corporations utilized linoleum to incorporate the
company logo in the flooring, and Ford even created its
own signature “Ford blue” color in a large curved tile
pattern. Today powdered limestone is often substituted
for powdered wood to achieve lighter colors, but
because all other mixture properties are brown, cream is
currently the lightest color available for linoleum.
Advertising and Cultural Implications
In 1917, Armstrong decided to branch out and expand
its customer base through advertising. Initially starting
directly with its retailers by publishing booklets on
effective sales, Armstrong quickly moved beyond
trade journals to the public itself. Frank Parsons from
the Parsons school of design was hired to write the
first decorating book. Upon its success a year later,
Armstrong realized its primary customer base was
women and subsequently hired Hazel Dell Brown to
lead the newly formed Bureau of Interior Decoration.
The Bureau provided direct personal assistance to
female homemakers as household managers through
booklets, films, and clinics aimed at concern for
cleanliness, time management and beautiful homes.
Brown also personally answered letters from consumers,
offering design solutions for an entire room around
a new linoleum-flooring pattern, and subsequently
published several books suggesting design solutions for
every room with linoleum floors.
In her 1997 article, Pamela Simpson analyzed much of
the linoleum advertising literature for cultural values
and determined several advertisement-focused areas
used to reach the expanding middle-class clientele.
With more money and leisure time at their disposal,
the rising middle-class expected greater comfort.
Linoleum was often marketed for its resiliency and
elastic properties underfoot, in addition to its warmth
compared to other flooring types like marble and
wood. Linoleum also played into changing perceptions
UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 4
and expectations of cleanliness standards during the
late Victorian period, with a frequent advertisement
of findings by a 1913 German scientist who reported
findings that the oxidization process of linseed oil
gave off a germicide gas. According to Simpson, “at a
time of rapid social change, the idea that technology
could provide enduring, permanent building materials
seemed to promise stability for the future.” Armstrong
advertisements often claimed linoleum would last as
long as the house.
In 1918 Armstrong advertised 380 designs in its pattern
book for mosaics, tile, parquetries, granites, marble and
“carpet” patterns, some of which were created by well-known
artists and designers like Joseph Hoffman who
promoted the cause of German industrial art through
geometric color combinations. This concept of “art” at a
reasonable price led to a greater discussion of imitation,
as some of the advertisements of the time period
illustrate a comparison of indistinguishable materials.
With its roots in Ruskin’s Seven Lamps of Architecture,
commentary on the inherent aesthetic and moral
superiority of handmade over machine-made products
was common among designers and the elite during
that time. Designers embraced new materials that were
well designed, educating the public on the appropriate
uses for linoleum. However, the rising middle class had
its own ideas and embraced all variations of linoleum
fully. The most popular was imitation ceramic tile, of
which some patterns are still being reproduced in vinyl
today. Hand crafted was considered old-fashioned and
needlessly expensive compared to the new modern,
machine-made products. Because of its affordability,
linoleum was celebrated as democratic, which mirrored
the broadening social and political enfranchisement
of the time period. And, as a replacement, it was also
considered better than the original material due to
properties that were of higher value for the emerging
middle class. Linoleum could look like marble, but was
warmer, more resilient, and cheaper.
Initially marketed for its cleanliness, durability, and
affordability to the emerging middle class, linoleum
sales exceeded all other flooring sales for a vast majority
of the early twentieth century for its superiority
to previous flooring options. It was thicker, more
waterproof and resilient, and had sound and heat-insulating
qualities. In 1951, Armstrong introduced the
linoleum imitator, vinyl flooring. In addition to being
manufactured in only one day (as opposed to months),
it wore just as well, was just as resilient and was not
prone to denting, a major selling point during the
popularity of stiletto heels. Another major competitor
for linoleum flooring in the early 1950s was asphalt tile.
Initially developed by a roofing company, asphalt tile
actually did not contain asphalt when it hit the market
Fig. 6: #5352, the most popular linoleum flooring made. Fig. 7: Linoleum borders and parquet imitations.
UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 5
at a large scale. The binder actually used for the tile
was a synthetic resin and asbestos. By the time vinyl
replaced linoleum in the early 1950s, linoleum was the
most widely used floor covering in the world, with
strong manufacturing centers in England, Germany, and
the United States. Both vinyl and asphalt tile could be
produced in a day while linoleum took several months’
production time.
Conservation and Restoration
In the history of preservation, linoleum has often been
ripped out to get to the “real floor.” While advertised
for use in every room of the house, linoleum was used
most often in entryways, kitchens, and baths. Only in
the past few decades has linoleum been recognized as a
historic flooring material in its own right that is worthy
of preservation and reproduction. It is difficult today
to find a replacement for historic linoleum patterns and
colors. There are still some manufacturers in Europe
that have been in production since the late 1800s,
but most replacements stateside are custom orders.
Although new technologies are being used to create
decorative borders and patterns for linoleum, currently
available linoleum is offered only in solids or marbleized
patterns. The inlaid designs of the past are no longer
being made, and the equipment to do so would require
significant investment on the part of the manufacturers.
Preservation of historic linoleum is key, and when
removal is required, careful documentation and storage
is preferred.
Given its traditionally utilitarian nature, most
deterioration can be linked to one of three causes: wear,
water, or chemical changes within the linoleum itself.
Wear and tear in high traffic areas from dirt and grit
is the most common in public spaces. Additionally,
high-heeled shoes and heavy furniture can cause
indentations. Water damage occurs often between the
seams where it separates the burlap backing from the
top layer of linoleum. Often, peeling and curling occurs
as the linoleum separates further. The linseed oil in
linoleum naturally oxidizes over time and becomes
brittle and can crack. In darker rooms, the pigments will
darken or show marked discoloration following UV ray
exposure over time. Perhaps the biggest aggressor to the
stability of linoleum are alkali cleaning solutions that
soften the linseed oil, destroy the cork, and subsequently
destroy the paints on printed linoleum.
Gouges in linoleum can be repaired with a mixture of
glue and linoleum shavings and touched up with acrylic
paint. Separated pieces of linoleum from water damage
can be heated with a hair dryer, injected with more
adhesive underneath, and left to flatten under heavy
weight. Once restored and cleaned, a protective wax or
aliphatic polyurethane coating is recommended once a
year. Weekly sweeping or dry mopping is recommended
to protect against general wear. When needed, a damp
mop and a small amount of nonionic, pH neutral
detergent may be used to clean the surface and then
rinsed with clear water.
Sustainability & Trends Today
Architects and interior designers in commercial and
residential spaces are utilizing many of the properties
that made linoleum so attractive at the turn of the
twentieth century today. Linoleum is a USDA certified
bio-based product made of thirty-six percent rapidly
renewable materials and thirty-five percent recycled
materials. The all-natural materials are environmentally
Fig. 9: This linoleum floor is still in use, despite hard
wear and tear in the Habitat Restore of Winston-Salem,
North Carolina.
Fig. 8: Armstrong black and white marble tile imitation.
UNCG The Historic Dimension Series: 6
sustainable, and cast-off during the manufacturing
process is recycled into future material. Linoleum is also
still at a comparable price point to its main successor,
vinyl, which makes it attractive for its affordability
as well as its anti-static and non-PVC properties.
Armstrong still recommends professional installers
for laying linoleum, and retail stores, day-care centers,
and hospitals are still top-buyers for linoleum due to
its anti-bacterial properties and full spectrum of colors
and designs. Linoleum is slowly moving beyond its
reputation of old and outdated irrelevance and seeing
resurgence in residential application as well, as it
is championed for its diverse application potential.
Linoleum lasts a long time when cared for, and once
its useful life is over has several safe decomposition
options: it can be composted, incinerated, or sent to a
landfill. While there is currently no recycling system
implemented for linoleum, one is entirely possible. As
increasing attention is put on the harmful effects of PVC
and the need for more sustainable materials, linoleum is
sure to move more into the limelight.
Resources
Armstrong Cork Company. (1918). Armstrong’s Linoleum
Floors: Complete Description and Detailed Specifics For
the Use of Architects, Interior Decorators and Builders.
Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
Armstrong Cork Company. (1940). 1940 Armstrong
Pattern Book. Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
Bowers, H. (2005). Interior Materials and Surfaces: The
Complete Guide. New York: The Ivy Press Limited
Holt, M. (1995). Linoleum, Better Babies, and the Modern
Farm Woman, 1890-1930. Albuquerque: University of
New Mexico Press.
Hatje Cantz Publishers (2000). Linoleum: History Design
Architecture 1882-2000. Germany.
Jester, T. (1995). Twentieth-century Building Materials:
History and Conservation. Washington, DC: The McGraw-
Hill Companies
Maxwell, S. and Massey, J. (1992). Before Vinyl,
There Was Linoleum. It’s Decorative, Indestructible,
Waterproof, and Yes, Even Historic. Advice on
Restoring, Replacing, or Removing Old Linoleum, The
Old-house Journal. Volume 44.
Powell, Jane. (2003). Linoleum. Layton, Utah: Gibbs
Smith, Publisher.
Simpson, P. (1999). Cheap, Quick, & Easy: Immitative
Architectural Materials, 1870-1930. Knoxville: University
of Tennessee Press.
Simpson, P. (1997). Linoleum and Lincrusta: The
Democratic Coverings for Walls and Floors, Exploring
Everyday Landscapes: Perspectives in Vernacular
Architecture, VII. Knoxville: University of Tennesee
Press.
Sloane-Blabon Corporation. (1952). Sloane Quality
Linoleum Products.
Zucker, P. (1944). New Architecture and City Planning New
York: Philosophical Library.
The Historic Dimension Series is a collection of briefs
prepared by UNCG students under the direction of
Professor Jo Ramsay Leimenstoll. For information on
other topics in the series please visit the website at
go.uncg.edu/hds
Fig. 11: Linoleum inlay design in a fashionable pink
bathroom.
Fig. 10: Armstrong’s cove and base flashing system al-lowed
for curved edges.